Invasion and Resistance Class 8 Notes Questions and Answers Social Science Chapter 1

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Class 8 Social Science Chapter 1 Invasion and Resistance Notes Questions and Answers

Class 8 Social Science Invasion and Resistance Notes Questions and Answers

Class 8 Social Science Chapter 1 Question Answer Kerala Syllabus

Question 1.
Observe the map and find the following

a. The starting point of Vasco da Gama’s voyage
b. The place where Vasco da Gama arrived
c. The oceans and continents he traversed
Answer:
a. Lisbon in Portugal
b. Kappad near Kozhikode
c. Continents: Europe, Asia and Africa
Oceans: Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean

Question 2.
Find and list the Malayaiam names of the things given in the picture.

Answer:

• Table (mesha)
• Chair (kasera)
• Almarah (alamara)
• Window (janala)
• Pen (pena)
• Sack (chakku)

Question 3.
This is a picture from Hortus Malabaricus. Identify the plant.

Answer:
Caryota urens Fishtail palm (Panankula)

Question 4.
Look at the given map and find the major centres under the control of the Portuguese, Dutch and French.


Answer:

Portuguese	Dutch	French
• Kochi	• Nagapattanam	• Pondicherry
• Goa	• Chinsurah	• Pondicherry
• Daman	• Ahmedabad	• Yanam
• Diu	• Bharuch	• Mahe

Question 5.
Discuss how the Company attained dominance in Madras, Bombay and Calcutta and interfered in the administration of these territories.
Answer:
The East India Company first came to India for trade, but slowly started gaining power in different parts of the country. In Madras (Chennai), they built Fort St. George and supported local kings in wars to gain more control. In Bombay (Mumbai), the British got the land from the Portuguese as a gift to their king and gave it to the Company. The Company turned Bombay into a strong trading and military center. In Calcutta (Kolkata), they built Fort William and began trading in Bengal. Later, they defeated the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah, in the Battle of Plassey in 1757. This gave them control over Bengal. After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, they got the right to collect taxes in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. With more money and a strong army, the Company started interfering in the administration, removing local rulers, and taking charge of running the regions. This is how the Company slowly became powerful and started ruling parts of India.

Question 6.
Discuss and prepare a note on how the economic policies of the British affected the farmers and artisans.
Answer:
With the introduction of the British tax system, farmers were forced to take loans from moneylenders so as not to lose their agricultural land. This resulted in farmers falling into debt traps. Moneylenders had the power to seize the land of these farmers. Instead of food crops, the British forced the farmers to grow cash crops such as indigo and cotton, which they needed. The spread of cash crops also led to reduced production of food crops, which led to food shortages. This increased commercialisation of agriculture helped the moneylenders exploit the farmers. After the harvest, the farmers were forced to sell the agricultural products at whatever price they could get. Machine-made products from Britain were imported into India. Due to competition with similar products, the market for handicrafts, including cotton-silk-wool clothes, pottery, leather, and edible oil, was lost. This led to the loss of employment for those engaged in handicrafts. Many were forced to give up their traditional occupations.

Question 7.
Prepare a flowchart of the main events of the English East India Company’s dominance in India and display it in the class.
Answer:

Question 8.
Following was an excerpt from Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s Bengali novel Anandamath. Discuss the plight of the people of Bengal at that time from the novel Anandamath and the circumstances that led to it.

When monks also became warriors
Summer in 1773… Padachinha, a village in Bengal… When it rained, the people felt comforted and rejoiced. But the rain suddenly stopped. The crops dried up. There was famine. The government did not stop collecting taxes… They ran around collecting taxes and arrears in a compulsory fashion. Bengal went through a miserable phase. People suffered. They sold their cattle. Then, they sold their tools used for agriculture. They even sold the seeds; then their jewellery and utensils. Some had to even remove the doors of their houses and sell them. After all, human beings have no value in the market. Therefore, nobody could sell them in the market. The villagers plucked the grass, leaves and dug up tubers and ate them… They even satisfied their hunger by eating rats, cats and dogs… Diseases spread-fever, plague and smallpox spread like the wild wind. There was no one to take care of the sick or even bury the dead. Dead bodies were left to rot in houses.

Courtesy: Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Anandamath
7th ed D. C Books

Answer:

• In 1773, Bengal faced a severe famine due to failed rains. Crops dried up, and there was no food.
• The British government continued to collect heavy taxes.
• People sold their cattle, tools, seeds, jewellery even house doors to survive.
• They ate grass, leaves, tubers, rats, cats, and dogs out of hunger.
• Deadly diseases like fever, plague, and smallpox spread rapidly.
• There was no help for the sick or to bury the dead; bodies rotted in homes.

Question 9.
When the forest woke up

The Santhals displayed the most adventurous courage. They did not want to surrender even though they did not know when they would be caught and killed. Once, forty-five Santhals took shelter in a mud hut and fought against the British soldiers. The British soldiers fired indiscriminately at the hut. Each time, the Santhals responded with arrows. When the soldiers finally stopped firing and entered the hut, they found only one old man alive, and a soldier asked him to surrender. Then the old man rushed and cut him down with his axe.

Bipan Chandra – India’s Struggle for Independence

Above is a note that shows the bravery of the Santhal tribal people. Why do you think, the Santhal people fought against the British?
Answer:

• The Santhal people fought against the British because:
• The British took away their land and gave it to moneylenders and landlords.
• The Santhals were treated unfairly and had to pay high taxes.
• They were cheated and forced to work in bad conditions.
• They wanted to protect their land, freedom, and way of life.
• They were brave and did not want to surrender to injustice.

Question 10.
These are the words about the bravery of Kunwar Singh who fought against the British in the revolt of 1857.

“When Kunwar and his group started moving towards the middle of the river, the English soldiers started firing from the land. Kunwar Singh’s left arm was shot and was broken and hung. Kunwar Singh, the hero did not hesitate to take the dagger that was shielded in his waist and cut off his useless arm. “I offer this to Mother Ganga,” he said and threw the severed arm into the river.

K.S.I.C.L-History of National Freedom Struggle for Children.

Why did Kunwar Singh fight against the British?
Answer:
Kunwar Singh fought against the British in the Revolt of 1857 because he wanted to protect his kingdom and freedom. The British were taking away land and disrespecting Indian traditions. Even though he was old, Kunwar Singh showed great bravery and joined the fight to end British rule in India.

Question 11.
Complete the flow chart by analysing the revolts that took place in India against the British.
Answer:

Question 12.
Discuss how the Indian Princely states were captured by the British with the Subsidiary Alliance Policy and the Doctrine of Lapse.
Answer:
The British used two main policies to capture Indian princely states:

• Subsidiary Alliance Policy: Introduced by Lord Wellesley. According to this, Indian kings had to keep British soldiers in their kingdoms and pay for their expenses. They could not make decisions or alliances without British permission. If they broke the rules, the British took over their state.
• Doctrine of Lapse: Introduced by Lord Dalhousie. If a king died without a natural (biological) son, his kingdom would be taken over by the British. Adopted sons were not accepted as heirs.

Using these two policies, the British slowly took control of many Indian states.

Class 8 Invasion and Resistance Questions and Answers Extended Activities

Question 1.
Read the accounts of foreigners who visited India before the Portuguese and find out their itineraries, travelogues, etc. and prepare a magazine.
Answer:
(Hints: Based on the following information, prepare a magazine.)

Traveller	Country	Period	Book	Notes
Megasthenes	Greece	Around 300 BCE	Indica	Described India’s society, administration, and cities.
Fa-Hien (Faxian)	China	5th Century CE	Record of Buddhist Kingdoms	Wrote about Indian cities, Buddhism, and social life.
Al-Biruni	Persia (Iran)	11th Century	Tahqiq-i-Hind	Studied Indian science, astronomy, and culture.
Ibn Battuta	Morocco	14th Century	Rihla (The Journey)	Describe the court, cities, and lifestyle of India.

Question 2.
Prepare an article by gathering news and pictures from various sources on peasant, tribal and women’s movements in various parts of India against the British.
Answer:
(Hints)
1. Peasant Movements
Indigo Revolt (1859 – 60) Bengal: Indigo farmers were forced to grow indigo instead of food crops.
Deccan Riots (1875) – Maharashtra: Poor peasants were burdened by taxes and loans.

2. Tribal Movements
Santhal Rebellion (1855 – 56) – Jharkhand/Bihar

• Santhals rebelled against British officials, landlords, and moneylenders.
• Led by brothers Sidhu and Kanhu.
  Munda Uprising (1899 – 1900) – Jharkhand
• Led by Birsa Munda, a tribal leader and freedom fighter.

3. Women’s Role in the Freedom Movement
Rani Lakshmi Bai – 1857 Revolt: Queen of Jhansi who fought bravely against the British.
Tribal Women in Revolts

• Women also joined in tribal uprisings like the Santhal and Munda rebellions.
• Fought side by side with men using bows, axes, and stones.
  Durgabai Deshmukh, Sarojini Naidu, and Kasturba Gandhi
• Took part in civil disobedience and protests.
• Worked to improve education and health for women during the freedom struggle.

Question 3.
Create a digital album of 1857 revolt centres and leaders.
Answer:
(Based on the given hints, prepare a digital album)

Place	Leader of revolt
Delhi	Bahadur shah jafar, Baku singh
Kanpur	Nana Sahib
Lucknow	Begam Hazrat Mahal and Birjis Qadar
Jhansi	Laxmi Bai
Bihar	Kuar Singh
Allahadbad	Liyakat Ali

Question 4.
Prepare a screenplay for a documentary based on the anti-British revolts in India.
Answer:
Title: “India’s Voice of Rebellion”
Scene 1: Beginning of Revolt
Visuals: Mangal Pandey refusing to load greased cartridge.
Narration: “In 1857, Mangal Pandey lit the spark of India’s first major revolt against British rule.”

Scene 2: Soldiers and Kings Join
Visuals: Soldiers marching to Delhi, Bahadur Shah Zafar declared emperor.
Narration: “Indian soldiers and rulers united. The 1857 revolt spread across North India.”

Scene 3: Peasants Rise Up
Visuals: Indigo farmers protesting, burning tax records.
Narration: “Peasants fought against unfair taxes and forced farming. Their ploughs became their protest.”

Scene 4: Tribal Revolts
Visuals: Santhal warriors, Birsa Munda addressing tribals.
Narration: “Tribal heroes like Sidhu, Kanhu, and Birsa Munda stood up to protect their land and people.”

Scene 5: Women in Freedom Struggle
Visuals: Rani Lakshmi Bai fighting, women in protests.
Narration: “Women like Rani Lakshmi Bai, Sarojini Naidu, and Kasturba Gandhi played a brave role in the fight.”

Closing Scene
Visuals: Indian flag waving, freedom fighters.
Narration: “From farmers to queens, India’s people fought with courage. Their sacrifice brought us freedom.”

Invasion and Resistance Class 8 Notes Pdf

Std 8 Social Science Invasion and Resistance Notes

• The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach India by sea.
• Vasco da Gama from Portugal was the first to reach India by sea. In 1498, he reached Kappad near Kozhikode.
• Europeans had trade relations with other parts of the world from ancient times. Asia was also included in this.
• The Kunjali Marakkars protected the Zamorin and the western coast from the attacks of the Portuguese. Kunjali Marakkar was a designation.
• The Europeans who came to India after the Portuguese were from Holland (Netherlands). They are also known as the Dutch.
• After the Dutch, the British (English) and then the French came to India for trade.
• The wars fought between the British and the French for dominance in South India are known as the Carnatic Wars.
• The British established political dominance in India with the Battle of Plassey in 1757.
• With the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the company acquired the right to collect taxes in the provinces of Bihar, Bengal and Orissa.
• The poor peasants and labourers fought against the British, and this revolt was supported by the sannyasies. So, these are known as Sannyasi Rebellion.
• The Neelam Peasant Revolt (1859) in Bengal was the most important agrarian revolt against the British colonial rule.
• ‘Ulgulan’ was a tribal riot that took place in the last decade of the nineteenth century. It is commonly known as Munda Rebellion.
• Poligar: The English word ‘poligar’ is derived from the Tamil word ‘palayakkar,’ meaning camp or military camp.
• The Attingal revolt happened in 1727.
• Kittoor Rani Chennamma was a brave woman who took up arms and fought against the British.
• The Subsidiary Alliance Policy was a plan implemented by Lord Wellesley.
• Doctrine of Lapse enacted by Lord Dalhousie, the British Governor-General.
• First War of Independence: The Revolt of 1857.

INTRODUCTION

This chapter, “Invasion and Resistance,” discusses how the British arrived in India and how the Indian people resisted them. In the beginning, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach India by sea to trade. Later, the British East India Company also came for trade, but slowly they began to take control of Indian land and power. They made unfair agreements like the Subsidiary Alliance Policy, which forced Indian kings to keep British soldiers in their kingdoms. They also used the Doctrine of Lapse to take over kingdoms when a king had no son. Many Indian rulers lost their power. Farmers were forced to grow crops for the British and pay heavy taxes. Tribal people lost their forests and lands. Indian traditions were also disrespected. Because of all this, many people, kings, peasants, tribals, and even women like Rani Lakshmi Bai rose in rebellion. These revolts showed the bravery and unity of Indians who wanted freedom from British rule.

VOYAGE OF THE PORTUGUESE TO INDIA

• The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach India by sea.
• Vasco da Gama from Portugal was the first to reach India by sea. In 1498, he reached Kappad near Kozhikode.
• Europeans had trade relations with other parts of the world from ancient times. Asia was also included in this.
• These connections led to the discovery of an eastward sea route from Europe by the end of the fifteenth century. The main reasons for this are as follows:
  • Technological advances in European shipbuilding and sailing.
  • Growth in knowledge about geography.
  • Advances made in compass and map making.
  • Travel writings by voyagers provided knowledge about new territories and their wealth.
  • The commercial market for Asian products like pepper in Europe.
  • Conquest of Constantinople by the Turks.

At that time, Kozhikode was ruled by the Zamorin dynasty. The Arabs controlled the foreign trade with Kozhikode. The Zamorin did not accept the demand of the Portuguese to expel the Arabs and grant them exclusive trading rights. Vasco da Gama returned home with goods worth sixty times more than the cost of his journey. The Zamorin did not give the Portuguese a monopoly in trade. This led to conflicts between the Zamorin and the Portuguese. The Portuguese had to face stiff resistance from the Kunjali Marakkars, who were the naval chiefs of the Zamorin. After the era of Kunjali Marakkars, the Portuguese did not face much threat from India.

The ships of Vasco da Gama Vasco da Gama and his crew reached India with three ships named Sao Gabriel, Sao Raphael and Berrio.

Kunjali Marakkar

• The Kunjali Marakkars protected the Zamorin and the western coast from the attacks of the Portuguese. Kunjali Marakkar was a designation.
• Four people have occupied this position at different times.
• Kunjali III defeated the Portuguese and captured Fort Chalium. Kunjali IV was executed by the Portuguese in Goa.
• With the fall of the Kunjalis, the decline of the Zamorin also began.

The contact between India and the Portuguese resulted in Malayalam receiving words from the Portuguese language. The impact of Portuguese contact in India in different areas:

Political field	Agricultural sector	Knowledge sector	Cultural sector
• The regions of Kochi, Goa, Daman and Diu came, under the rule of the Portuguese.	• Cashew tree (parangi mavu), papaya, guava (perakka) and pineapple were introduced.	• Printing technology was popularised. • Training was given in war tactics and European weapons	• The first European Fort in India (Fort Manuel), was established in Kochi. • Art forms such as Chavittunatakam and Margamkali were popularised. • The European style of construction was started. • Christian religious education centres were started.

THE DUTCH

• The Europeans who came to India after the Portuguese were from Holland (Netherlands). They are also known as the Dutch.
• Nagapattinam, Bharuch, Ahmedabad and Chinsura were the major trading centres of the Dutch in India.
• The Dutch defeated the Portuguese in their competition for monopoly in trade.

BATTLE OF COLACHEL
In 1741, Marthandavarma, who ruled Travancore, clashed with the Dutch at Colachel near Kanyakumari. With the defeat in this war, the Dutch lost their supremacy in India. This was the first battle in which a European power lost to an Indian ruler.

HORTUS MALABARICUS

• The greatest contribution of the relationship with the Dutch is the work Hortus Malabaricus.
• Information about seven hundred and forty-two medicinal plants of Kerala is presented in this book.
• Hendrik van Rheed, the then-Dutch governor, was the compiler of this work.
• Itti Achuthan, an indigenous medical practitioner, helped him in this composition.
• Appu Bhat, Ranga Bhat and Vinayaka Bhat also contributed to the composition of this work. Hortus Malabaricus was the first book to be printed with some Malayalam words. This work was translated into Malayalam and English by Dr. K. S. Manila).

THE FRENCH

• After the Dutch, the British (English) and then the French came to India for trade.
• The wars fought between the British and the French for dominance in South India are known as the Carnatic Wars.
• The British won in this decisive war. As a result, French dominance was reduced to Pondicherry (Pudhucherry), Yanam, Karaikal and Mahe.

Carnatic War The wars fought between the British and the French in India are known as the Carnatic Wars. These battles took place in the Carnatic region which included a major portion of the present-day Tamil Nadu and the coastal areas of Southern Andhra Pradesh. There were three Carnatic War.

FROM TRADE TO POWER

• The British established political dominance in India with the Battle of Plassey in 1757.
• The Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah, was defeated in this battle by the forces of the East India Company led by Robert Clive.
• Land taxes in agriculturally rich Bengal helped the British build up their military power and raise money to conquer the rest of the country.
• With the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the company acquired the right to collect taxes in the provinces of Bihar, Bengal and Orissa.
• The British defeated the combined forces of the Mughal ruler Shah Alam II, the Nawab of Oudh, Shujaud-Daulah and the Nawab of Bengal, Mir Qasim in this battle.

PRINCELY STATES AND THE COMPANY

• The princely states of India were subjugated by the British through wars and diplomacy.
• The Anglo-Mysore Wars were fought between the southern princely state of Mysore and the English East India Company. The Mysore army was led by Hyder Ali who was the ruler of Mysore and his son Tipu Sultan.
• After Hyder Ali’s death in 1782, Tipu Sultan commanded the Mysore forces. In the Fourth Mysore War of 1799, Mysore fell when Tipu Sultan was killed by the Company forces.
• The Anglo-Maratha Wars were fought between the East India Company and the Marathas. After the Third War, the Maratha lands came under British control.
• The Anglo-Sikh Wars led to the defeat of the Sikhs, and Punjab also came under British rule.

The Tax policies implemented by the British

Tax	Implemented areas	Executed persons	Features
Permanent land revenue settlement (1793)	Bengal Bihar Orissa	Lord Cornwallis	• The zamindars, who were the landlords, collected high taxes on behalf of the British. • Farmers were required to pay a fixed amount as tax regardless of fluctuations in yield.
Ryotwari System (1820)	South India Deccan	Thomas Munro Alexander Reed	• Peasants were considered as landlords. • The British collected taxes directly from the farmers. • The British seized the land of farmers who failed to pay taxes.
Mahalwari system (1822)	North India Central India Punjab	Holt Mackenzie	• The village was treated as a unit, and tax was collected. • The village that defaulted in tax payment was annexed to British India.

General features of the taxation systems implemented by the British

The new legal system and land tax systems of the British encouraged moneylenders. Instead of food crops, the British forced the farmers to grow cash crops such as indigo and cotton, which they needed. The spread of cash crops also led to reduced production of food crops, which led to food shortages. This increased commercialisation of agriculture helped the moneylenders exploit the farmers. After the harvest, the farmers were forced to sell the agricultural products at whatever price they could get.

British tax policies affected farmers by following ways:

• Farmers found it difficult to pay the high taxes.
• Even if crops were damaged due to flood or drought, there was no tax relief
• Farmers had to rely on moneylenders to avoid losing their farmland
• Debt-ridden farmers lost their land
  • Like the peasants, the British policies also made the lives of artisans miserable. Machine-made products from Britain were imported into India.
  • Due to competition with similar products, the market for handicrafts, including cotton-silk-wool clothes, pottery, leather, and edible oil, was lost.
  • This led to the loss of employment for those engaged in handicrafts. Many were forced to give up their traditional occupations.

RESISTANCE AGAINST EXPLOITATION

• The economic policies of the British adversely affected various sections of the population in India. People rioted against them.
• The East India Company made no effort to solve the problem of famine in Bengal.
• Hence, the poor peasants and labourers fought against the British, and this revolt was supported by the sannyasies. So, these are known as Sannyasi Rebellion.
• Along with the sannyasies, the Fakirs also joined the revolt against the British, and so, this revolt is also called the Sannyasi-Fakir Rebellion. Bhavani Pathak and Majnu Shah led the Sannyasi-Fakir Rebellion.

FROM AGRICULTURE TO REBELLION

• The Neelam Peasant Revolt (1859) in Bengal was the most important agrarian revolt against the British colonial rule.
• It was under the leadership of Digambar Biswas and Vishnu Biswas that the revolt started.
• As riots spread across Bengal, farmers abandoned their indigo cultivation. Indico factories were then attacked.
• When farmers resistance became strong, planters closed down the factories and indigo cultivation almost disappeared from Bengal.

The Santhals launched their struggles against the British in 1855 by mobilising the tribal people against the injustices they faced. Sidhu and Kanhu, who led these riots, were killed by the British. Although the rebellion was brutally suppressed, the Santhal Rebellion became an important chapter in the history of tribal resistance.

ULGULAN (THE GREAT TUMULT)

• ‘Ulgulan’ was a tribal riot that took place in the last decade of the nineteenth century.
• It is commonly known as Munda Rebellion.
• The word ‘ulgulan’ means ‘great uproar’ or ‘great upheaval’.
• The rebellion was led by Birsa Munda, who sought to break British colonial rule and establish a Munda kingdom (Mundarajya) in the Munda tribal areas of present-day Jharkhand.

Reasons for the rebellion:

• British colonial exploitation and land grabbing
• financial exploitation by moneylenders and merchants

Suppression of the rebellion by the British: In 1899, the Munda tribe started an armed rebellion against the British. There were clashes with the British police at many places, and many Munda tribesmen were killed in the firing in Ranchi. Birsa Munda was imprisoned and died there. The Munda Rebellion was brutally suppressed by the British.

Kurichiya Rebellion, Pahariya Rebellion, Kol Rebellion, Bhil Rebellion and Khasi Rebellion are some of the tribal rebellions that took place in different parts of India against the British.

THE UPROAR OF BATTLE

• The policies of the British also affected the Poligars, the military leaders of Tamil Nadu.
• Poligar: The English word ‘poligar’ is derived from the Tamil word ‘palayakkar,’ meaning camp or military camp.
• Veerapandya Kattabomman, a poligar of Panchalam Kurichi at Tirunelveli, and Marut Pandya brothers, poligars of Sivagangai, played an important role in the struggle against the British.

The poligar was also responsible for collecting taxes from the people. The ruler of Panchalam Kurichi surrendered to the British, but Kattabomman was not willing to do so. The British further burdened the people by increasing the existing taxes. The fact that Kattabomman questioned the tax collection by the British made him their enemy.

Kattabomman and the Marut Pandya brothers, who were poligars, of Sivagangai fought against the British and died as heroes.

THE ATTINGAL REVOLT

A British contingent of one hundred and forty led by Gifford arrived to give gifts to the Attingal Rani, despite the opinion that was sufficient to give gifts only through the landlords This move led to a big conflict. The contingent was attacked and killed by the locals without any distinction of class, colour, caste and religion. Moreover, the British fort at Anchuthengu was surrounded and blockaded. The Attingal Revolt is significant as the first organised popular uprising against the British rule in Kerala.

THE ONWARD MOVEMENT OF WOMEN

• Kittoor Rani Chennamma was a brave woman who took up arms and fought against the British.
• Kittur was a princely state in Karnataka that recognised the supremacy of the Maratha rule.
• When the British won the Third Anglo-Maratha War, the Kittur area came under the control of the English East India Company. The ruler of Kittur was Sivalinga Rudradesai.
• After his death, Chennamma, his widow, decided to adopt a boy. This was prevented by the English East India Company, which annexed Kittur to British India. Provoked by this, Rani Chennamma of Kittoor declared war against the British. Rani Chennamma died in 1829 while in British custody.

Many parts of India were against the English East India Company. The Company troops suppressed all such struggles. What happened in 1857 was an organised rebellion in India against British imperialism. Therefore, historians consider this revolt as India’s first struggle for independence. It was the first anti- British struggle in which various sections of the society, including natives, peasants, artisans, native kings, soldiers, and landlords took part. Administrative reforms implemented by the British led to the revolt. Two such British policies included the Subsidiary Alliance Policy and the Doctrine of Lapse.

THE SUBSIDIARY ALLIANCE POLICY

• The Subsidiary Alliance Policy was a plan implemented by Lord Wellesley who was the then Governor- General, for the expansion of the British empire in India and to strengthen its sovereignty.
• According to this, the princely states entering into a military alliance with the British had to follow certain conditions. If these conditions were violated, the princely states would be annexed by the British.

THE DOCTRINE OF LAPSE

• If the ruler of a princely state died without male heirs, there was a practice of finding a boy from another family as the heir.
• However, the king’s power to adopt was abolished under the Doctrine of Lapse enacted by Lord Dalhousie, the British Governor-General.
• In the absence of an heir, the princely state would fall under the control of the English East India Company.
• Many princely states were annexed to British India under these two policies. The princely state of Awadh (Oudh) was also annexed to British India on charges of misrule.

• Another reason for the Revolt of 1857 was the dissatisfaction of the Indian soldiers of the East India Company with the British.

PATRIOTS FOUGHT AGAINST THE BRITISH

Venue of the Rebellion	Persons who led the rebellion	Features
Delhi	Bahadur Shah II	• The rebels declared him the Emperor of India • After the revolution, the British exiled him to Rangoon.
	General Bakht Khan	• Military general of Bahadur Shah II
Jhansi	Rani Lakshmibai	• Ruler of Jhansi
Kanpur	Nana Sahib	• Ruler of Maratha
	Tantia Tope	• Nana Sahib’s army chief • Practised guerilla warfare
Lucknow	Begum Hazrat Mahal	• Ruler of Oudh
Ara in Bihar	Kunwar Singh	• Farmer lord of Jagdishpur

Limitations of the Revolt of 1857

• The rebellion was confined to a few parts of northern India.
• The rebellion had no organised leadership.
• The Company army had more improvised military and organisational skills than the mutineers.
• The middle class in India generally did not support the rebellion.
• A section of princely rulers abstained from the rebellion.

Impact of the Revolt of 1857 in Indian History

• The English East India Company’s rule in India ended.
• The administration of India came under the direct control of the British Queen.
• The position of Governor-General was replaced by Viceroy.
• It inspired India’s later national movements.

Foreigners who came for trade gained political power in India. The subsequent national struggles were fuelled by the resistance and movements of people in various regions of India against this.