From The Rainy Forests to The Land of Permafrost Notes Class 10 Geography Chapter 3 Kerala Syllabus Questions and Answers

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SCERT Class 10 Social Science Geography Chapter 3 From The Rainy Forests to The Land of Permafrost Notes Question Answer Kerala Syllabus

Class 10 Geography Chapter 3 Notes Kerala Syllabus From The Rainy Forests to The Land of Permafrost

Question 1.

a. Which continents does the Equatorial climatic region spread across?
b. Identify the places that belong to this climatic region.

c. To which heat zone does this climatic region belong?
d. Identify the countries that are included in the equatorial climatic regions of continents like Asia, Africa, and South America, and complete the table provided.
Answer:
a. The Equatorial Climatic Region, as shown in the map, spreads across the following continents:

• South America
• Africa
• Asia
• Australia (specifically parts of the islands near northern Australia)

These regions are located along the equator, between the Tropic of Cancer (231/2° N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (231/2° S), and experience hot and humid conditions throughout the year.

b. The places that belong to the Equatorial Climatic Region, as shown in the map, include:
Amazon Basin – Located in South America, primarily in countries like Brazil, Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador.

Central Africa – Encompassing the Congo Basin and surrounding regions in countries like the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon, and parts of Uganda and Kenya.

South-East Asia – including countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, Papua New Guinea, and parts of the Philippines and Thailand.

Islands near Northern Australia, including Papua New Guinea and nearby islands within the equatorial zone.

c. Equatorial Climatic Region belongs to the Torrid Zone (also known as the Tropical Zone).
This zone lies between the Tropic of Cancer (231/2° N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (231/2° S). It receives direct sunlight throughout the year, resulting in consistently high temperatures and a hot, humid climate characteristic of equatorial regions.

Continents	Countries
Asia	• Indonesia • Malaysia • Brunei • Sri Lanka
Africa	• Democratic Republic of Congo • Equatorial Guinea • Somalia • Madagascar
South America	• Brazil • Colombia • Peru • Ecuador

Question 2.
Mark the places that belong to the equatorial region on the outline map of the world and include it in My Own Atlas.
Answer:

Question 3.
Why is this climatic region called the equatorial climatic region?
Answer:
This climatic region is called the equatorial climatic region because it lies along the Equator, the imaginary line at 0° latitude that divides the Earth into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. In this region, the Sun’s rays fall directly overhead throughout the year, resulting in consistently high temperatures and intense solar heating. As a result, the area experiences heavy rainfall, high humidity, and a hot, wet climate year-round. These unique climatic conditions are characteristic of regions near the equator, which is why the name “equatorial climatic region” is used.

Question 4.
How does convectional rainfall occur? What are the features of convectional rainfall? Discuss in the classroom and prepare a note.
Answer:
Convectional rainfall occurs mainly in hot regions, especially near the equator, where the sun’s heat is
intense throughout the year. During the day, the sun heats the Earth’s surface, which in turn warms the air above it. This warm air becomes lighter and rises into the atmosphere. As the air rises, it cools down, and the water vapour in it condenses to form clouds. When these clouds become heavy with moisture, they release the water as rainfall. This type of rainfall usually occurs in the afternoon and is often accompanied by thunder and lightning. Although it lasts for a short period, convectional rainfall is usually heavy and intense.

Question 5.
Does Kerala experience convectional rainfall, and in which months.
Answer:
Yes, Kerala experiences convectional rainfall, especially during the summer months from March to May, which is the pre-monsoon period. During this time, the intense heat causes the land surface to warm up quickly. As a result, the air above the ground becomes hot and rises. As this warm air rises, it cools and the moisture in it condenses to form thick clouds. When these clouds become heavy, they bring short but intense rainfall, often accompanied by thunder and lightning. This type of rainfall usually occurs in the afternoons or evenings and is a typical feature of convectional rainfall in Kerala before the arrival of the southwest monsoon.

Question 6.
The following diagrams represent the distribution of annual rainfall and temperature recorded in two different places of the equatorial climatic region. Analyse the diagrams and answer the questions that follow.

a. Find the highest and the lowest mean monthly temperatures for each place.
b. What is the annual range of temperature at each place?
c. Is there any month that does not receive rainfall?
Answer:
a. Kuala Lumpur: Highest: 26.3°C (May), Lowest: 25.1°C (January and December)
Bogota: Highest: 13.3°C (September), Lowest: 12.6°C (December)

b. To calculate the annual range, subtract the lowest mean monthly temperature from the highest:
Kuala Lumpur: 26.3°C – 25.1 °C = 1,2°C
Bogota: 13.3°C – 12.6°C = 0.7°C

c. Kuala Lumpur: No. All months receive rainfall. The lowest is 174 mm (February and June).
Bogota: No. All months receive rainfall. The lowest is 31 mm (August).

Question 7.
Why is Kilimanjaro snow-covered throughout the year?
Answer:
Mount Kilimanjaro is snow-covered throughout the year because it is a very high mountain, even though it is located near the equator in Tanzania, Africa. It rises to a height of about 5,895 meters (19,341 feet) above sea level. As altitude increases, the temperature decreases – this is known as the lapse rate. At such high altitudes, the temperatures are very low, often falling below freezing, which causes snow and ice to form and remain at the summit all year round. So, even though the base of the mountain is warm, the peak stays cold and snow-covered due to its great height.

Question 8.
With the help of information technology, create a digital album containing the pictures of fauna in the equatorial climatic region.
Answer:
Hints:

Question 9.
With the help of information technology, prepare a table containing a list of major plantation crops in the equatorial climatic region and the corresponding areas where they are grown.
Answer:

Plantation Crop	Main Areas Grown
Rubber	Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Congo (Africa)
Oil Palm	Nigeria, Indonesia, Malaysia, Cameroon, Colombia
Cocoa (Chocolate)	Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Brazil, Ecuador
Coffee	Brazil, Colombia, Ethiopia, Uganda, Indonesia
Banana	Ecuador, Colombia, Costa Rica, Philippines
Sugarcane	Brazil, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand
Tea	Kenya, Sri Lanka, India (Assam), Indonesia
Coconut	Philippines, Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka
Spices (e.g., Pepper, Nutmeg)	India (Kerala), Indonesia, Sri Lanka

Question 10.
With the help of information technology, find out the major cities in the equatorial climatic region. Locate them on an outline map of the world and include it in ‘My Own Atlas’.
Answer:
(Hints: Major cities in the equatorial climatic region are typically located near the Equator (between 10°N and 10°S latitude) and experience high temperatures and heavy rainfall year-round. Here are some notable cities in this region:

1. Singapore – Singapore
2. Jakarta – Indonesia
3. Kuala Lumpur – Malaysia
4. Kinshasa – Democratic Republic of the Congo
5. Kampala – Uganda
6. Quito – Ecuador
7. Manaus – Brazil

Question 11.
By utilizing the possibilities of information technology, collect news on forest fires in the Amazon forests from the media and prepare a note on it. Present the same in your classroom.
Answer:
(Hints: collect news and images as shown below)

Amazon fires
The Amazon rainforest is facing serious forest fires in 2025. These fires are destroying large parts of the forest, harming plants, animals, and people. Most of the fires are caused by human activities like cutting down trees and burning land for farming. Climate change also makes the forest drier, which increases the chances of fires. These fires are dangerous because they destroy animal homes, pollute the air with smoke, and make global warming worse by releasing carbon dioxide. The Amazon is very important because it helps keep the Earth’s climate balanced. To help, governments, communities, and many countries are working together to stop illegal tree cutting and protect the forest. We must all do our part to save the Amazon and our planet.

Question 12.
Use information technology to gather details on the challenges faced by equatorial rainforests. Lead a discussion on the topic.
Answer:
Equatorial rainforests, like the Amazon, face many challenges today. People cut down too many trees for wood, farming, and building. This is called deforestation, and it harms animals, plants, and the people who live in the forests. Pollution and climate change are also big problems. They make the forests hotter and drier, which is not good for the trees and animals. Some forests are also hurt by mining and building roads. If we don’t protect these forests, we could lose many plants and animals forever. Using technology like the internet, scientists and people around the world are sharing ideas to help save these forests.

Question 13.
My intense longing for many years to see the northernmost town in the world has finally brought me to Longyearbyen, a town in the Svalbard Islands located north of Norway in the Arctic Sea. The Svalbard Islands, covered by snow throughout the year, are part of Norway. This mining town, inhabited by more than a thousand people, is considered the northernmost settlement in the world. The conditions in this region and the way people live here will generate both astonishment and curiosity in anyone. Is it necessary to specify how amazing the experiences in this part of the world are for someone like me, especially coming from the equatorial region? The day I arrived, there was heavy snowfall. Every year, from mid-November to January, this town experiences seemingly everlasting nights. Those living here must adjust their lives during this period, known as the polar night. When they go out for work during the day, they must wear reflective clothing over their usual woollen clothes to be recognized in the darkness. One of nature’s wonders that can be witnessed here is the Northern Lights. As I gazed at the multi-coloured sky and the snow-covered mountains reflecting the same sky, I stood still, forgetting everything around me.

a. What features have you noticed here that are different from those in the equatorial region?
b. By using an atlas, find the location of the town of Longyearbyen and identify the climatic region to which this town belongs.
Answer:

• Snowfall – Longyearbyen has snow all year; equatorial regions do not.
• Polar night – Months of darkness in winter, unlike the equator.
• Cold climate – Freezing temperatures, unlike the warm equatorial climate.
• Woollen clothes – Needed for warmth; not required in hot regions.
• Northern Lights – Visible here but not near the equator.

b. Location of Longyearbyen:

• Longyeacbyen is located on the Svalbard Islands in the Arctic Ocean, north of Norway.
• It lies around 78° North latitude and 15° East longitude.

Climatic Region:

• Longyearbyen belongs to the Polar Climate (also called the Arctic Climate).
• This region is known for very cold temperatures, snow-covered landscapes, and long, dark winters.

Question 14.
Examine the map given below and write down the regions marked on the map.

Answer:

• Ice cap
• Tundra Climatic Region

Question 15.
Have you identified the location of the Tundra region? Now, find the continents over which the Tundra region spreads. Complete the table given below.

Answer:

Places	Continents
1. Siberia	Asia
2. Greenland	North America
3. Iceland	Europe
4. North Scandinavia	Europe
5. North Canada	North America
6. Alaska	North America

Question 16.
a. In which months is the apparent position of the sun in the Northern Hemisphere?
b. In which months is the apparent position of the sun in the Southern Hemisphere?
c. How long are the nights and days during these periods at the Poles?
Answer:
a. April to September

b. October to March

c. At the North Pole, there is continuous daylight (24 hours) from March to September and continuous night (24 hours) from September to March. At the South Pole, it is the opposite – daylight from September to March and night from March to September.

Question 17.
The following diagram represents the average annual temperature and rainfall recorded at a place in the Tundra region. Analyse the diagram using the indicators given below.

Indicators
a. Month that receives the maximum rainfall
b. Month that receives the minimum rainfall
c. Month in which the maximum average temperature is recorded
d. Month in which the minimum average temperature is recorded
e. The maximum average temperature and the minimum average temperature
f. The Annual range of temperature
Answer:
a. August
b. February
c. July
d. February
e. 6.4°C in July and -23.4°C in February
f. 6.4°C – (-23.4°C) = 29.8°C

Question 18.
With the help of information technology, create a digital picture album of animals found in the Tundra region.
Answer:

Question 19.
With the help of an atlas, identify the regions where each tribal group lives in Tundra and mark these regions on an outline map of the world. Write the name of each tribal group appropriately on the map. Include this map in My Own Atlas.
Answer:
(Hints)

Tribal Group	Region	Continent
Inuit	Northern Canada, Greenland, Alaska	North America
Sami	Northern Norway, Sweden, Finland, and part of Russia (Scandinavia)	Europe
Chukchi	Siberia (Northeastern Russia)	Asia
Yakuts (Sakha)	Central and Eastern Siberia	Asia
Nenets	Northern Russia (Arctic coast)	Asia

Marking on the Outline World Map

• Print or use a blank world map (outline).
• Shade or mark the Arctic region with a light color.

In each tundra area, write the name of the tribal group clearly:

• Mark Inuit across Alaska, Canada, and Greenland.
• Mark Sami in northern Scandinavia.
• Mark Chukchi, Yakuts, and Nenets in different parts of northern Russia.

Add a title:

• “Tribal Groups of the Tundra Region”
• Optional: Add a legend (key) with colored dots or shapes for each group.

Question 20.
With the help of information technology, prepare a note on the topic ‘The Challenges Posed by Climate Change in the Tundra Region’. Present it in the classroom.
Answer:
Climate change is causing serious problems in the Tundra region. The ground in this region, called permafrost, is always frozen, but due to global warming, it is starting to melt. This can damage buildings, roads, and also release harmful gases into the air. Animals like polar bears, reindeer, and arctic foxes are losing their homes because the ice and snow they depend on are disappearing. The natural plants of the Tundra are changing too, which affects the food chain. Indigenous people, like the Inuit, who live by hunting and fishing, are also facing difficulties as their traditional ways of life are being affected. The region is also seeing stronger storms and more extreme weather. All these changes show how important it is to protect the Tundra from the harmful effects of climate change.

Question 21.
Haven’t you read the imaginary travel memoirs included in the chapter? Imagine that you are the expeditioner travelling from the Equatorial region to the Tundra. Prepare a travelogue comparing these two regions based on the indicators given below. Make it attractive by including appropriate pictures.
• Climate
• Flora and Fauna
• Human Life
• Challenges faced by each region
Answer:
(Hints: Based on the comparisons given below, you can prepare a travelogue and also can add images suitable for the following)
1. Climate:
• Equatorial Region:
a. Hot, humid, and tropical all year round.
b. Regular rainfall and high temperatures (25 – 30°C / 77 – 86°F).
c. Little variation in seasons.

• Tundra:
a. Extremely cold with long winters and short, cool summers.
b. Temperature often below freezing; permafrost.
c. Snowfall is common, and the wind is harsh.

2. Flora and Fauna:
• Equatorial Region:
a. Lush, dense rainforests with towering trees, ferns, and flowering plants.
b. Rich biodiversity: monkeys, exotic birds (parrots, toucans), insects, reptiles, etc.
c. Warm, stable climate supports diverse ecosystems.

• Tundra:
a. Sparse vegetation: moss, lichens, grasses, and low shrubs.
b. Animals are adapted to extreme cold: Arctic foxes, polar bears, reindeer, migratory birds,
c. Short growing seasons limit plant growth.

3. Human Life:
• Equatorial Region:
a. Dense populations near forests and rivers.
b. Communities rely on agriculture, fishing, and forest resources.
c. Life affected by heat, humidity, and tropical diseases.

• Tundra:
a. Small, scattered human settlements, often indigenous peoples (e.g., Inuit).
b. Subsistence hunting, fishing, and some nomadic lifestyles.
c. Survival depends on adapting to extreme cold and maintaining warmth.

4. Challenges Faced:
• Equatorial Region:
a. High humidity, heat, and diseases like malaria.
b. Thick jungles make travel difficult.
c. Constant rainfall and flooding can disrupt daily life.

• Tundra:
a. Extreme cold, lack of shelter, and freezing temperatures.
b. Limited food sources and harsh winters.
c. Long periods of darkness during winter and constant winds.

Std 10 Geography Chapter 3 Notes Kerala Syllabus – Extended Activities

Question 1.
Conduct a seminar in your class on the topic “Human Life in the Equatorial Climatic Region and the Tundra Region.”
Answer:
(Hints)
Good morning everyone,
Today I am going to talk about how people live in two very different parts of the world – the Equatorial Climatic Region and the Tundra Region. These places are almost opposites in tenns of weather and lifestyle.

1. The Equatorial Climatic Region
Where is it?
It is found near the equator. Countries like Brazil (South America), Congo (Africa), and Indonesia (Asia) are part of this region.

What is the climate like?
Very hot and wet all year round
Heavy rainfall
Dense forests called rainforests

How do people live here?
Many people live in small villages.
Houses are made on stilts to avoid floods.
People mostly farm and grow crops like bananas, rice, and cocoa.
They travel by rivers or walk through the forests.
Clothes are light because of the hot weather.

Challenges:
Too much rain can damage crops.
Insects and wild animals are common.

2. The Tundra Region
Where is it?
Found in the far north near the Arctic Circle – places like northern Canada, Alaska, Russia, and Greenland.

What is the climate like?
Very cold and dry
Covered with snow most of the year
Short summers, long winters
Trees do not grow here

How do people live here?
People like the Inuit live here.
Houses used to be made from ice blocks (igloos), but now they also have modem homes.
They wear thick clothes made from animal skin.
They hunt animals like seals and fish for food.
Snowmobiles and sleds are used for transport.

Challenges:
Very harsh weather
Hard to grow food – they depend on hunting and modem supplies

Conclusion:
Even though the Equatorial region is hot and rainy and the Tundra region is cold and snowy, people have learned to live in both places. They use the resources around them and adjust their homes, clothes, and food to survive.

Thank you

Question 2.
With the help of information technology, create a digital album containing pictures that illustrate the lifestyles of tribes in the Equatorial Climatic Region and the Tundra Region. Make a comparative study of their lifestyles.
Answer:
(Hints)
Page 1: Cover Page: Title: Life of Tribes in the Equatorial and Tundra Regions

Page 2: Introduction

• A few lines introducing both climatic regions
• Show a world map marking the Equator and the Arctic Circle

Page 3 – 5: Equatorial Region Tribes
Example Tribe: Yanomami (Amazon Rainforest)
Images: Forest, stilt houses, tribal people, river boats
Lifestyle points:

• Live in large family groups in the rainforest
• Hunt, fish, and gather fruits
• Use blowpipes and arrows for hunting
• Wear light clothes or no clothes due to hot weather
• Houses made from wood and leaves

Page 6 – 8: Tundra Region Tribes
Example Tribe: Inuit (Arctic Region)
Images: Snow-covered land, igloos, fur clothing, sled dogs

Lifestyle points:

• Live in icy and snowy areas
• Wear clothes made from animal skin for warmth
• Eat fish, seals, and caribou
• Travel using sleds and snowmobiles
• Homes are modern now, but igloos were used earlier

Page 9: Comparison based on the above points (can add tables)

Page 10: Conclusion

Question 3.
Prepare a note comparing the climate of both the Equatorial Climatic Region and the Tundra Region. Answer:

Feature	Equatorial climatic region	Tundra region
Location	Near the Equator (0° latitude)	Near the North Pole (Arctic Circle)
Temperature	Always hot (25°C to 30°C)	Always cold (can go below -30°C in winter)
Rainfall	Heavy rainfall all year round	Very little rainfall or snow
Seasons	No real seasons – hot and wet all year	Long winters and short, cool summers
Sunlight	Almost 12 hours of sunlight every day	Very little sunlight in winter, long days in summer
Humidity	Very high – the air feels wet and sticky	Very low – dry and cold air
Wind	Calm winds, but storms can happen	Cold, strong winds blow across the land

Question 4.
Prepare a pictorial description of the Northern Lights after collecting more information about it.
Present it in the classroom.
Answer:
(Hints)
Slide 1: What Are the Northern Lights?
Picture: Sky glowing with green, purple, and pink waves
“The Northern Lights, or Aurora Borealis, are glowing lights in the night sky. They look like dancing ribbons and happen near the North Pole!”

Slide 2: How Do They Happen?
Picture: Diagram showing the sun, Earth, and light reaching the poles
“The sun sends out tiny particles called solar wind. When these touch the Earth’s air near the North Pole, the sky lights up!”

Slide 3: What Colors Do You See?
Picture: Northern Lights in green, purple, and red
“You can see green, purple, blue, or even red lights. The colors depend on which gas the particles bump into in the sky.”

Slide 4: Where Can You See Them?
Picture: Map showing places like Alaska, Norway, Canada, etc.
“You can see them best in Alaska, Canada, Norway, Finland, and other Arctic places – especially on dark, cold nights.”

Slide 5: Cool Facts!
Picture: Aurora + Inuit people + snowy land
“In olden times, people thought the lights were spirits dancing in the sky!”
“There are also Southern Lights in Antarctica – called Aurora Australis!”

Question 5.
Conduct a debate on the topic ‘The Challenges faced by the Equatorial Rainforests’.
Answer:
(Hints)
For the Motion (Challenges are serious):

• Deforestation – Trees are cut down for farming, mining, and roads.
• Loss of biodiversity – Animals and plants lose their homes and may go extinct.
• Climate change – Fewer trees means more carbon dioxide in the air.
• Soil erosion – Without trees, soil gets washed away easily.
• Illegal logging – Many trees are cut without permission, harming the forest.
• Tribal displacement – Indigenous people are forced to leave their land.
• Pollution – Industries pollute rivers and the air in forest areas.

Against the Motion (There are ways to manage the challenges):

• Economic needs – Forest land is used for jobs, farming, and development.
• Sustainable logging – Trees can be cut and replanted responsibly.
• Eco-tourism – Rainforests attract tourists, helping local economies.
• Technology and research – Scientists are finding new ways to protect forests.
• Conservation efforts – Many countries have laws to protect forests.
• Global awareness – More people now care and take action for rainforests.
• Balancing development and nature – Smart planning can help both people and the environment.

From The Rainy Forests to The Land of Permafrost Class 10 Notes Pdf

• One of the salient features of the equatorial climate is that the temperature remains more or less the same throughout the year.
• In the equatorial region, there is no significant variation in the annual and diurnal ranges of temperature.
• There is no winter in the equatorial climatic region.
• The atmospheric disturbances caused by the convergence of air currents in the Doldrums occasionally lead to intermittent rainfall of cyclonic origin.
• The annual rainfall in the equatorial region is between 175 cm and 250 cm.
• Luxuriant forests, called tropical rainforests, are one of the salient features of the equatorial climatic region.
• The rainforest found in the Amazon Basin is called Selvas.
• In the equatorial climatic region, there is no particular season for seeding, flowering, fruiting, and shedding leaves.
• The Pygmies of Africa, the Indian tribes of the Amazon Basin, and the Orang Asli of Malaysia are some of the important native groups of equatorial region.
• Sleeping sickness is a type of disease found in equatorial rainforests.
• The equatorial climatic region is rich in the diversity of wildlife.
• The Tundra region is located to the north of the Taiga region.
• Tundra region spreads along the Arctic coasts of North America and Eurasia, and of Greenland.
• The Tundra region can be categorised into Arctic Tundra and Alpine Tundra.
• The Tundra climatic region is also called the Arctic or Polar Climate.
• The climate of the Tundra is characterised by a very low mean annual temperature.
• The Tundra is a sparsely populated region. Human life in this region is largely confined to the coast.

INTRODUCTION

This chapter, ‘From the rainy forests to the land of permafrost,’ takes us through two contrasting climatic regions: the Equatorial Climatic Region and the Tundra Region. The Equatorial Climatic Region, situated near the Equator, is characterised by a consistently hot and humid climate with heavy rainfall throughout the year. This creates ideal conditions for the growth of dense tropical rainforests, which are home to a rich diversity of plant and animal life. The people living in this region, such as the indigenous Yanomami of the Amazon, rely heavily on the forest for sustenance, using the land for farming, hunting, and fishing. In stark contrast, the Tundra Region, located near the Earth’s poles, experiences extreme cold and is covered by permafrost, or permanently frozen soil. Due to the harsh climate, only hardy plants like mosses and lichens can survive here. Human life in the tundra, particularly for the Inuit people, is shaped by the need for warm clothing, sheltered homes like igloos, and a reliance on hunting and fishing to sustain life. This chapter explores how these two regions, each with its unique climate and natural vegetation, have shaped the way humans live and adapt to their environments.

Equatorial Climatic Region

• One of the salient features of the equatorial climate is that the temperature remains more or less the same throughout the year.
• In the equatorial region, there is no significant variation in the annual and diurnal ranges of temperature.
• There is no winter in the equatorial climatic region.
• The high rate of insolation received here causes consistently high temperature.
• The equatorial climatic region is the region where the rainfall is heavy and well-distributed throughout the year.
• The annual rainfall in this region is between 175 cm and 250 cm.
• The atmospheric disturbances caused by the convergence of air currents in the Doldrums occasionally lead to intermittent rainfall of cyclonic origin.

Natural Vegetation in Equatorial Climatic Region

• Luxuriant forests, called tropical rainforests, are one of the salient features of the equatorial climatic region.
• The rainforest found in the Amazon Basin is called Selvas.
• In this climatic region, there is no particular season for seeding, flowering, fruiting, and shedding leaves.
• Another significant feature of these rainforests is that multiple species coexist in a particular area.
• The equatorial climatic region is rich in the diversity of wildlife.
• In equatorial rainforests, the forest is cleared at certain places for shifting cultivation.
• Due to the physical conditions prevalent in the equatorial climatic region, this area is sparsely populated.
• The Pygmies of Africa, the Indian tribes of the Amazon Basin, and the Orang Asli of Malaysia are some of the important native groups of this region.
• Sleeping sickness is a type of disease found in equatorial rainforests.

Tundra Region

• The Tundra region is located to the north of the Taiga region.
• Tundra region spreads along the Arctic coasts of North America and Eurasia, and of Greenland.
• The Tundra region can be categorised into Arctic Tundra and Alpine Tundra.
• The Tundra climatic region is also called the Arctic or Polar Climate.
• The climate of the Tundra is characterised by a very low mean annual temperature.
• One of the features of this region is that during the period when the sun’s apparent position is in the Northern Hemisphere, the North Pole experiences day for around six months.
• In contrast, during the period when the sun’s apparent position is in the Southern Hemisphere, the North Pole experiences night for around six months.
• During winter, they live in houses called igloos, and in summer, they migrate to other places for hunting and fishing.

EQUATORIAL CLIMATIC REGION

• One of the salient features of the equatorial climate is that the temperature remains more or less the same throughout the year.
• In the equatorial region, there is no significant variation in the annual and diurnal ranges of temperature.
• There is no winter in the equatorial climatic region.
• The high rate of insolation received here causes consistently high temperature.
• The equatorial climatic region is the region where the rainfall is heavy and well-distributed throughout the year.
• The annual rainfall in this region is betw een 175 cm and 250 cm.

One of the salient features of the equatorial climate is that the temperature remains more or less the same throughout the year. In the equatorial region, there is no significant variation in the annual and diurnal ranges of temperature. The mean monthly temperature and the mean annual temperature are both around 27 degrees Celsius. The high rate of insolation received here causes consistently high temperature. Because of this, the region does not experience winter. The mornings experience a moderate temperature, but as the day progresses, it increases considerably. This significant rise in temperature causes a high rate of evaporation, followed by heavy downpours of convectional rain in the afternoons.

The equatorial climatic region is the region where the rainfall is heavy and well-distributed throughout the year. The annual rainfall in this region is between 175 cm and 250 cm. High temperature and high rate of evaporation are the reasons for the heavy rainfall. Along with convectional rainfall, orographic rainfall is also received in certain places. It is the mountainous areas of Indonesia and Africa where orographic rainfall is experienced.

• The atmospheric disturbances caused by the convergence of air currents in the Doldrums occasionally lead to intermittent rainfall of cyclonic origin.
• Unlike in the monsoon climate or the savanna region, there is no distinct dry season in the equatorial climatic region. This is due to the abundant rainfall received in the equatorial region throughout the year.

Do you know?
The local wind called Harmattan blowing along the Guinea coast during the night reduces the temperature of that region.

Doldrums
The equatorial region receives a high rate of insolation throughout the year. As a result, a low- pressure region develops along the equator. Horizontal movement of air is minimal in this region. This region is called the doldrums. It is also where the trade winds from both hemispheres converges.

In spite of being situated in the equatorial climatic region, Kilimanjaro, the highest mountain peak in Africa, is snow-covered throughout the year. Excessive humidity, high rates of insolation and intense heat make the days in the equatorial climatic region quite oppressive. However, the moderating effect of winds blowing from the sea brings some relief to the coastal areas. As a result, coastal regions tend to be more populated. The significant features of the equatorial climatic region include consistently high temperature and heavy rainfall throughout the year. The high temperature and abundant rainfall in this region pave the way for luxuriant vegetation growth.

NATURAL VEGETATION IN EQUATORIAL CLIMATIC REGION

• Luxuriant forests, called tropical rainforests, are one of the salient features of the equatorial climatic region.
• The rainforest found in the Amazon Basin is called Selvas.
• In this climatic region, there is no particular season for seeding, flowering, fruiting, and shedding leaves.
• Another significant feature of these rainforests is that multiple species coexist in a particular area.
• The equatorial climatic region is rich in the diversity of wildlife.

These forests spread over the Amazon Basin in South America, West-Central Africa, Indonesia, the Malay Peninsula, and New Guinea. In this climatic region, there is no particular season for seeding, flowering, fruiting, and shedding leaves. As these processes occur year-round in the tropical rainforest, it remains evergreen throughout the year. Hence, these rainforests are also called equatorial evergreen forests.

A wide variety of evergreen trees, including ebony, mahogany, cinchona, rosewood, and others, are seen abundantly in these forests. Besides large trees, smaller palms, climbing plants like lianas, epiphytes like orchids, numerous parasitic plants, ferns, and grasses like Lalang grow luxuriantly here. It has been estimated that in the Malaysian rainforests, as many as 200 species of plants may be found in an acre of forest.

• Plants grow to varying heights depending on the availability of sunlight.
• Trees form canopies at different levels, according to their heights.

These evergreen rainforests absorb carbon dioxide and produce oxygen at a massive rate. As a result, these forests are often referred to as the ‘Lungs of the World’.

• In equatorial rainforests, the forest is cleared at certain places for shifting cultivation.
• When these clearings are abandoned after cultivation, less luxuriant secondary forests spring up. Such secondary forests are called ‘belukar’ in Malaysia. In the coastal areas and brackish swamps, mangrove forests thrive.

The equatorial climatic region is rich in the diversity of wildlife. Because of the climatic characteristics of this region, most of the wildlife thrive in trees. The animals which spend most of their lives in trees are called arboreal animals.

Since sufficient sunlight does not penetrate to the floor in these dense forests, undergrowth is absent. As a result, herbivores that feed on this undergrowth are not commonly seen. Consequently, carnivores that prey on them are also negligible in number.

Wildlife in this region includes lemurs, chimpanzees, orangutans, tree-dwelling reptiles, hippopotamuses, alligators, and many birds such as parrots, toucan and hornbills.

HUMAN LIFE

• The relationship between humans and their environment plays a crucial role in shaping human life.
• Due to the physical conditions prevalent in the equatorial climatic region, this area is sparsely populated.
• The Pygmies of Africa, the Indian tribes of the Amazon Basin, and the Orang Asli of Malaysia are some of the important native groups of this region.

Pygmies

Pygmies are the indigenous people found in different parts of Africa, especially in the Congo Basin. They are comparatively short-statured. Traditionally, they live by hunting and heavily depend on the forest for subsistence. They also gather fruits, pulses, honey and other forest resources for food. Their diet includes meat, fish, roots and fruits. They follow a nomadic lifestyle and often live in small temporary huts made of leaves and branches. Pygmies live in groups. Decisions are also made collectively. They follow their traditional rituals strictly. Their rituals and beliefs are closely related to the environment. Indigenous musical instruments, music and dance are important parts of their culture.

The tribes living in these rainforests sustain themselves by hunting animals, gathering nuts and fruits, and fishing. The traditional method of cultivation practised here is shifting cultivation, also known as slash-and-burn agriculture. Crops are grown after clearing a forest area by cutting and burning the trees. Cultivation continues until the land loses its fertility.

Once the soil becomes infertile, the tribes move to another forest area, leaving the previous clearings behind, and repeat the same process. Crops such as manioc (tapioca), yam, maize, bananas, and groundnuts are primarily grown through shifting cultivation.

With the arrival of Europeans, plantation agriculture was started extensively. The prevailing climate in this region has proven to be highly favourable for the cultivation of certain crops that are highly significant for industrial purposes. An important crop among them is rubber. Malaysia and Indonesia are the leading rubber-producing countries in the world.

• Another plantation crop widely cultivated in the equatorial climatic region is cocoa.
• Other major plantation crops extensively grown here include oil palm, coconuts, sugarcane, coffee, tea, bananas, and pineapples.
• Most of the natives in the equatorial climatic region are nomads. Most houses are built with locally available resources.

Most of the people living in the equatorial climatic region are either primitive tribes or nomads, residing in houses built with wood and stones. On the contrary, there are many beautiful tourist destinations and modem cities here. Cities like Equitas, Quito Bogota, Singapore, Jakarta, and Manaus and Belem cities of Amazon basin are a few examples. In Malaysia, Singapore, and Eastern Brazil, significant development has also been made through systematic planning and hard work.

Shelters in the Amazon and Malaysian Equatorial Region
In the Amazon Basin, people live in a distinct type of house called Maloca. Malocas have steep-sided slanting roofs. Houses thatched with coconut leaves are also seen here. Villages in the equatorial regions of Malaysia are called Kampongs. Houses are mainly made of wood here. As the houses are constructed with wood, bamboo, and leaves, extreme heat is not felt inside these houses.

Challenges faced by Human life
Though the equatorial climatic region is blessed with rich forests, numerous rivers, abundant water, and scenic beauty, it encounters many challenges. The hot and wet equatorial climate is highly supportive of plant growth. At the same time, it also encourages the spread of insects and pests. As germs and bacteria are more easily transmitted through moist air, this leads to a widespread occurrence of diseases in the region. The spread of insects and pests is also harmful to crops.

• In modern cities, most of the equatorial climatic region is devoid of basic amenities. The thick, luxuriant forest hinders the development of this region.
• It is too difficult and expensive to construct and maintain roads and railway lines through these dense forests and over swamps. Lalang (tall grasses) and thick undergrowth spring up as soon as the trees are cut. It often adversely affects the cultivation of crops too.
• Wild animals, disease-spreading insects, and poisonous creatures pose a threat to the lives of those engaged in construction work in these forest areas.
• Many remote parts of the Amazon Basin, the Congo, and Borneo lack modem communication systems even today. The rivers form the only natural highways.
• Although equatorial climatic regions are blessed with thick forests, commercial extraction remains challenging. The density of forest and the difficulty of transporting logs hinder commercial lumbering. Additionally, the hardwoods are too heavy to be floated down the streams.

Livestock rearing is not a primary subsistence activity in most parts of this climatic region due to the absence of grazing land as well as insect attacks on the animals. The equatorial rainforests play a crucial role in making the world’s climate sustainable. About one-third of the world’s total forests are located in three regions: the Amazon Basin, the Congo Basin, and Southeast Asia. These forests, which play a significant role in influencing the world’s climate, face numerous threats of deforestation in many ways.

Another issue encountered by this region is human-induced forest deterioration. Human activities such as agriculture, construction, urbanisation, and mining are alarmingly destroying these forests.

Sleeping Sickness
Sleeping sickness is a type of disease found in equatorial rainforests. It is spread through Tsc Tsc flies. Another fatal disease in the equatorial rainforests is yellow fever, caused by mosquitoes.

TUNDRA REGION

• The Tundra region is located to the north of the Taiga region.
• Tundra region spreads along the Arctic coasts of North America and Eurasia, and of Greenland.
• The Tundra region can be categorised into Arctic Tundra and Alpine Tundra.
• The Tundra climatic region is also called the Arctic or Polar Climate.
• The climate of the Tundra is characterised by a very low mean annual temperature.
• One of the features of this region is that during the period when the sun’s apparent position is in the Northern Hemisphere, the North Pole experiences day for around six months.

The Tundra region can be categorised into Arctic Tundra and Alpine Tundra. Identify from the table below the regions to which each type of Tundra belongs:

Arctic Tundra	Alpine Tundra
In parts located to the north of Taiga in Alaska, Northern Canada, Siberia, Greenland, Iceland, Scandinavia	In high mountainous regions

The polar climate is characterised by short summers and long winters. The climate of the Tundra is characterised by a very low mean annual temperature. In mid-winter, temperature falls between -25 and -35 degrees Celsius and the temperature in the interior parts of the Tundra falls still lower. Summers are short here during whieh, a few weeks have-the temperature rising above 0 degrees Celsius. The sun never sets for weeks in the area between the Arctic Circle and the Pole. Likewise, the sun never rises for weeks in this area either.

• One of the features of this region is that during the period when the sun’s apparent position is in the Northern Hemisphere, the North Pole experiences day for around six months.
• In contrast, during the period when the sun’s apparent position is in the Southern Hemisphere, the North Pole experiences night for around six months.

During winter, the precipitation is in the form of snow. The coastal areas where cyclones are strong have much heavier rainfall. The strong snowstorms that blow over this region are called blizzards. They often cause heavier snowfall.

NATURAL VEGETATION
The natural vegetation is scanty in this region due to insufficient in sunlight and long winters. The diversity of fauna is also scanty here. Trees are normally absent in the Tundra region due to the challenges posed by the climate. Mosses, lichens, sedges, and bushes are commonly found here. Dwarf willows and stunted birches withstand the harsh climatic conditions and survive in certain places. Some hardy grasses grow in the coastal lowlands where favourable conditions prevail. Herbivores like reindeer make survival possible here only by depending on these pastures.

• Even though summer is very short in the Tundra, which is covered by snow throughout the year, this region becomes active with the onset of summer.
• In brief summer, as the snow melts, bushes start bearing berries, and flowers begin to bloom. Birds migrate to the Tundra during this period from the south to prey on insects that come out at this time. Arctic foxes, wolves, polar bears, musk-oxen, and arctic hares are the other animals found here.

HUMAN LIFE IN TUNDRA REGION

• The Tundra is a sparsely populated region. Human life in this region is largely confined to the coast.
• Plateaus and mountains are permanently snow-covered, making them uninhabitable.
• The Tundra is mainly inhabited by some nomadic tribes.

Hunting and fishing are the major activities for subsistence by the people of the Tundra. Whales, seals, caribou, various kinds of fish, birds, and furbearing animals provide them with everything they need for food and clothing. Their bones and other parts are used as weapons, tools, and even utensils. The Polar Eskimos of Greenland still lead a primitive lifestyle, not very much different from their forefathers.

Different tribes in the tundra and the regions they belong to:

Greenland, North Canada, Alaska	Eskimos or Inuit
North Finland, Scandinavia	Lapps
Siberia	Samoyeds
Lena Basin	Yakuts
North-Eastern Asia	Koryaks, Chuckchi

• During winter, they live in houses called igloos and in summer, they migrate to other places for hunting and fishing.
• During the summer season, they live by the side of streams in portable tents made of animal skin.
• There are Eskimos who hunt and feed on even polar bears.

In the last sixty years, the way of life of the Eskimos has undergone tremendous changes through their contact with Europeans. In coastal villages, Eskimos live in houses with modern amenities. They now use speedboats for fishing instead of small rowing boats called kayaks. Fur-bearing animals are being reared on a commercial scale. In some areas of the Tundra in Canada and Alaska, schools have been established for Eskimo children to enable them to live a modern life. In the Eurasian Tundra, most of the tribal groups lead a nomadic life, wandering with their herds of reindeer in search of pastures. In the Siberian Tundra, large farms have been established for rearing fur-bearing animals, including reindeer, on a commercial scale.

Mining in the Tundra region results in the development of new settlements. In certain areas of the Southern Tundra where favourable conditions exist, cereals with short growing season are also cultivated.

Igloo: The dome-shaped, temporary shelters made out of blocks of snow by Eskimos in the Tundra region.
Sledge: In some areas of the Tundra, a distinct type of vehicle called sledge, which slides over snow, is used for transportation. Dogs are usually used to pull these vehicles.

THE TUNDRA AND THE CLIMATE CHANGE

• The Tundra is one of the places that is adversely affected by climate change.
• Due to global warming, the permafrost in the Tundra melts considerably.
• This adversely affects the ecosystem and environmental equilibrium of the region.