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Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 1 Bricks, Beads and Bones (The Harappan Civilisation)

Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions And Answers In Malayalam Question 1.
Which site in the Harappan civilization was the first to be discovered?
Answer:
Harappa

Question 2.
At which site was the Great Bath found?
Answer:
Mohenjo Daro

Question 3.
Who was the first Director of the Indian Archaeology Department (Archaeological Survey of India) (ASI)?
Answer:
Cunnigham

Question 4.
From which place were the Harappan people getting their copper?
Answer:
Oman

Question 5.
Who is the spokesman for the Aryan Invasion theory?
Answer:
Mortimer Wheeler

Question 6.
Who is the author of the book entitled “The Story of Indian Archaeology”?
Answer:
S.N. Roy

Question 7.
Which was the year in which John Marshall declared the discovery of the Harappan Civilization?
Answer:
1924

Question 8.
Match the items in Colum A with those in Column B.

A	B
Small settlements	Script
Seals	Early Harappan Civilization
Lamba Excavations	Aadhi Sivan
Pasupati	John Marshall

Answer:

A	B
Small settlements	Early Harappan Civilization
Seals	Script
Lamba Excavations	John Marshall
Pasupati	Aadhi Sivan

Question 9.
Match the following.

A	B
Harappan Seals	Priestly King
Centre of Power	Picture script
Mortimer Wheeler	Hill of the Dead
Mohenjo Daro	Ayran attack

Answer:

A	B
Harappan Seals	Picture script
Centre of Power	Priestly King
Mortimer Wheeler	Aryan Attack
Mohenjo Daro	Hill of the Dead

Question 10.
Find the relation between a and b in each group and fill in the blank accordingly.

1. A. Magan : Oman
   B. Dilman : ……….
2. A. Fortress : Public buildings
   B. LowerTown : ……..
3. A. Charles Masson : English Official
   B. Cunningham : ……………………

Answer:

1. Bahrein Island
2. Area of living
3. The first Director of ASI

Question 11.
The Harappan civilization is divided into three stages. What are they? What are their special features?
Answer:
The Harappan Civilization existed between 2600 and 1900 BC. In the same region there were pre and post Harappan Civilizations. The pre Harappan Civilization was called Early Harappan. The post Harappan Civilization was called Late Harappan. To show the Harappan Civilization as separate from these, it is often called the Mature Harappan Culture.

Question 12.
The Harappan city was divided into sections. Explain.
Answer:
The City was divided into two sections:

1. The Citadel.

2. TheLowerTown.

The Citadel (Fortress):
This is built On a manmade platform. It is on the western side of the city. This is the highest part of the city. There are two reasons for its height. Firstly, it is built on higher ground. Secondly, the buildings are put up on a platform made of clay bricks. The fortress is protected with walls around it. Therefore it looks different from the Lower Town. In the fortress, there are tall buildings. They are public buildings. They were used for special public activities. The Warehouse and the Great Bath were the main structures in the fortress.

The Warehouse:
The biggest building in Mohenjo Daro is the Warehouse there. The bottom part of the Warehouse is made of bricks. They still remain there. The upper part was built with wood. It got destroyed long ago. The Warehouse was used to store the left- overgrain.

Question 13.
Point out the importance of the Great Bath.
Answer:
The most important structure in the fortress (citadel) of Mohenjo Daro is the Great Bath. It is in a rectangular shape. The pond is in the yard which is surrounded by corridors on all four sides. To get into the pond there are steps on the northern and southern sides. The bottom of the pond is made watertight using bricks and lime paste. This prevents the water from seeping down and making the water level go down.

There are rooms on 3 sides of the pond. There was a big well in one of the rooms. The water for the pond ‘ was brought from this well. There were provisions for filling the pond with water and to make the dirty water flow out into drains. Historians think that the Great Bath had a religious importance. They think that this Great Bath was used for ritual baths. The Great Bath shows the importance the Harappans gave to cleanliness. It also shows their engineering and technical skills.

Question 14.
Write on a note on the weights and measures of Harappa.
Answer:
To ensure proper exchanges of goods, the Harappans had developed correct weights and measures. These played an important role in the commercial activities. They made measuring weights with a kind of firestone. They also used limestone and alabaster or marble for making weights. Generally, they all appeared like cubes. There were no markings on their weights.

The lower units of the weights were considered as doubles – 1,2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc. until 12,800). But the higher units were taken in normal numeric system (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). Very small weights were used to measure ornaments and beads. Some metallic balances were also discovered.

Question 15.
From the remains of vegetables and bones of animals, explain the food habits of the Harappans.
Answer:
The Harappans made their living by practising agriculture arid animal husbandry. They had different crops. They also tamed different animals. From the burnt remains of grain and seeds found in the Harappan sites, archaeologists have been able to conclude the types of food the Harrapans took. Archaeo-Botanists, who are experts in ancient Botany, have carefully studied these remains found at the Harappan sites. From their researches they found:

1. The Harappans took different types of grains and vegetables. They used wheat, barley, different kinds of pulses and peas and sesame (gingelly).

2. They also used rice and millet. At the sites in Gujarat, remains of millet were found. Rice was seen only rarely. They were found in Lothal and Rangpur in Gujarat.

3. The Harrapans ate a lot of fish and meat. The bones of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig were found at the Harappan sites. The studies conducted by anchor-zoologists and zoo-archaeologists show that the Harappans tamed these animals. They had tamed even wild pigs, deer and gharial (large fish-eating crocodile) which are usually wild animals.

4. It is not clear if the Harappans got these by hunting or from other hunting groups. Remains of fish and chicken were also found at the Harappan sites.

Question 16.
What were the agricultural technologies used by the Harappans? Explain with examples.
Answer:
The main occupation of the Harappan people was agriculture. The remains of different grains found in the Harappan sites make that clear. But it is not easy to reconstruct their agricultural technologies. For example, we are not sure if the Harappan people sowed the seeds in ploughed farms. The images found on the seals and clay sculptures show that they were familiar with bulls. From this, the archaeologists think that probably they used bulls to plough the fields.

At the sites in Kolistan (Pakitan) and Banwali (Haryana), clay models of ploughs were found. At Kalibengan in Rajasthan, the researchers v have found evidences of a ploughed field. In this field, there are two different rows of furrows. It shows they cultivated different crops.

Researchers also tried to find out the type of implements the Harappans used for harvesting. We are not sure if they used sickles with wooden handles or some metallic implements for cutting the crops.

Question 17.
How did the Harappan people solve the problem of lack of rain (shortage of water)?
Answer:
Most Harappan sites were located in semi-deserts. Since the land was dry, there was a need for water for agriculture. For irrigation, the people made canals. At the Harappan site of Shortugai in Afghanistan, there are remains of the canals. But in Punjab or Sindh, such remains are not seen. The ancient canals might have disappeared by the accumulation of silt over long periods.

Well, water was also used for irrigation. There were also huge clay jars for storing water for agricultural purposes. (E.g. Dholaveera)

Question 18.
For what all things did Harappans use bulls?
Answer:
Animal husbandry was one of the important means of livelihood to the Harappans. Bones of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, etc. were found at different Harappan sites. Studies made by archaeo-zoologists and zoo-archaeologists show that the Harappans had domesticated these animals. Wild animals like wild pig (boar), deer and gharial (fish-eating crocodiles) were also tamed by them. The Harappans had a special liking for humped bulls. Bulls were used for ploughing, to pull carts and also carry goods. Donkeys and camels were used for carrying heavy burdens.

Question 19.
Explain the strategies used by archaeological researchers to find out the social differences in the Harappan culture.
Answer:
In the Harappan society, there were economic and social differences among people. The ways they buried their dead, the luxury items they used and the different types of houses they lived in, show these differences.

1. Burials: To find out the social differences among the people, a technique (strategy) that researchers use is studying about their burial rituals. By studying about the pyramids in Egypt the researchers found the social differences among the ancient people there. Most of the pyramids were the tombs of kings. The dead bodies of the kings (pharaohs) were buried with a lot of wealth.

The tombs found at the Harappan sites give some ideas about the burial rituals of the people. Generally, the Harappans buried their dead. But there are differences in digging the’ grave. On the upper edges of some graves, bricks were laid out. The differences in these graves indicate the differences in the social status. The graves with bricks might have been the graves of the rich.

In some graves, there were ornaments and earthenwares. This shows the belief of the Harappan people in life after death. In some places along with the dead bodies rings with shells and beads were also buried. In the digging done at a gravesite in the mid-1380s, at Harappa, near a mans skull, there were 3 shell rings, a jasper (sun-stone), and an ornament made from hundreds of small beads.

Along with some dead bodies, mirrors made of copper were also found. Generally speaking, the Harappans did not believe in burying things with the dead bodies. But in some cases, some expensive things were found in the graves. This shows the social differences that existed among people.

2. Things of Luxury: Another method the researchers use to find out the differences among people is studying the artefacts (things made by people). They divide these things into two types, a) Useful things,b) Things of luxury, in the first category there are things of everyday use. Pounding stone (for grinding grains), clay pots, needles, body-cleaning things etc. come in this category. These were commonly found, in the graves of the lower town where common people lived.

Things of luxury include uncommon things, things made of expensive materials not locally available, things made with the help of complicated technologies and so on. Pots of faience (glazed pots) are examples of this. They are made with local or metallic sand mixed with colour and gum and are made firm in the fire. Since they were difficult to make they were considered expensive.

Only the rich people had luxury things with them. Luxury and expensive things were found in the vast living areas of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa. In the small areas, they were not commonly seen. For example in Mohenjo Daro and Harappa.

They unearthed a lot of high-quality small containers for keeping aromatic spices and perfumes In small places like Kalibangan, such things were not found. Gold was very rare and expensive. All the golden ornaments got from the Harappan sites were found in hoards.

3. Different kinds of Houses: From a study of the different houses, we can know about the social differences among the Harappan people. The houses ranged from single-room to multi-storied houses. They clearly indicate the social differences among people. The palatial houses belonged to the rich. The poor lived in single-room houses.

Question 20.
The Harappan people were much interested in making beads.” Comment.
Answer:
Making beads was one of the things that the Harappans liked most. To make beads they used different kinds of materials. They used different kinds of stones like carnelian, jasper, sapphire, crystal, alabaster or limestone. They also used metals like copper, bronze and gold. They also made use of shells, faience and clay to make beads.

Some bead garlands were made from two different types of beads. The beads were attached together. Some beads were even covered with gold. These ornaments were of different shapes Some were round, some looked like pillars, some were oval in shape, some looked like barrels and some had a crescent shape. Some garlands were decorated with Inscriptions and pictures. Their designs were very beautiful.

The skill needed to make beads differed with the material used in them. Beads with limestone, which were not very strong or hard, were easy to make. Limestone was ground and was made into a paste and from this beads were moulded.

This was helpful in giving beads different shapes. Even now the researchers are struggling to find out how the ancient people could make such fine beads from limestone. Beads made from stronger stones had different geometrical shapes.

Beads were made from carnelian. At different stages of manufacturing, the yellow raw material and the beads were heated to give them red colour. The projections on the surface are removed and the beads are filed smooth and holes are drilled in them. They used special kinds of drills to make holes in the beads.

Nageshwar and Balakot were settlements near the sea. They were centres for making things with shells. With shells, they made bangles, spoons and different decorative pieces. From these places, the things they made were distributed to other places. In the same ways, bead products made in Chanhudaro and Lothal were sent to bigger city centres like Mohenjo Daro and Harappa.

Question 21.
What all things are considered by the archaeological researchers to find out the centres for the production of various artefacts?
Answer:

1. They try to find the places from where raw materials for the artefacts came. They include limestone hills, shells, and copper ore.
2. Instruments or tools for making the artefacts.
3. Incomplete things, whose manufacturing process is not finished.
4. Waste material

Question 22.
Point out the strategies used by the Harappans to obtain their raw materials.
Answer:
They collected their raw materials from the subcontinent. They used the following strategies:

1. Establishment of Settlements:
They established settlements in the areas where raw materials were easily available. For example, they made settlements in places like Nageswar and Balakot from where they could get shells. They made settlement in Shortughai (Afghanistan) where sapphires were easily available. They made settlements in Lothal where carnelian and limestone were easily.got.

2. Sending Expeditions:
Sending expeditions was another technique that the Harappans used to get raw materials. They sent expeditions to Khetri in Rajasthan, for copper, and South India for gold. These expeditions helped them to have good relations with the local communities. In these places, beads from limestone made by the Harappans have been found. This shows the relations between the two peoples.

Researchers have found evidences for the culture called Ganeshwar-Jodhpur Culture from the Khetri region. This culture has many types of clay pots and plenty of copper things different from those found in the Harappan culture. There was a possibility that these people gave copper to Harappans.

Question 23.
Explain the commercial and cultural relations the Harappan people maintained with far-away countries.
Answer:
The Harappans collected raw materials for their manufactured goods (artefacts) from faraway places. This was done mainly through commerce. The Harappan people had commercial ties with Oman, Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Persia. It was from Oman they brought copper.

In the Omani copper and the artefacts made by the Harappans, there is the trace of nickel. It shows their common origin. There are also other evidences for the relations between Oman and Harappa. From Oman, researchers have discovered a jar covered with black clay. Such covering by clay prevents containers from leaking. We don’t know what was taken in these jars to Oman. There was a possibility that the things sent in the jars were exchanged for the copper from Oman.

There are proofs from literature to show there were relations between Harappa and Mesopotamia. Some Mesopotamian books show that Harappa had relations with regions like Dilmun, Magan and Meluha. Dilmun might the Bahrein Island. Magan must be another name for Oman.

Meluha has been recognized as a Sindhu region. Mesopotamian books talk about the calenian, sapphire, copper, gold and different types of timber from Meluha. This is written about Meluha in a Mesopotamian myth: “Let your bird be the ‘haja’ bird. Let its voice be heard in the palace.” Researchers think that the ‘haja’ bird is the peacock.

There are also scientific proofs to show that relations existed between Harappa and Mesopotamia. The Harappan seals, weights, dice used in gambling and beads show that.

The Harappans traded with Oman, Bahrein and Mesopotamia by sea. Mesopotamian books describe Meluha as a land of sea travellers. Moreover, the pictures of ships and boats found on the Harappan seals show that they were doing commerce using sea-routes.

Question 24.
The Harappan seals were excellent art creations. Discuss the special features and importance of those seals.
Answer:
The most important artefact in the Harappan civilization is their seals. From the various Sindhu towns, more than 2000 seals have been found. The seals are made from soft limestone. They are found in different sizes and shapes – around, square rectangular. On most seals, we find the pictures of animals. Some picture scripts (like the hieroglyphics, in Egypt) are also found.

The seals were used to make long-distance commerce easy. They were also * used to indicate ownership of property and also to decorate houses. In the opinion of A.L. Basham, they were also used as talisman for protection and good luck.

Seals were great artistic creations of the Harappan people. It is from these seals that we learn about their agriculture, animals, birds, trees, dress, ornaments, religious faiths, arts and foreign trade.

To make commerce with distant places easy, the containers were sealed. Goods were packed in bags for sending to different places. The mouth of the bag was tied with a string and it was sealed with wet clay. On the clay, they used to put their seals. If the goods reach their destinations without any damage to the seals, it would mean nobody has done anything wrong with the goods. These seals also helped to know who sent the goods.

Question 25.
Historians have different views about the centre of power in Harappa. Explain.
Answer:
There are no exact details about who the rulers were and which was the centre of power in Harappa.

1. Archaeologists found a huge building in Mohenjo Daro. It is considered to be a palace. But nothing about the building or other evidences are available.
2. Some historians argue that Harappan towns were ruled by Priest-Kings. A stone statue that was found in Mohenjo Daro was considered by them to be that of a Priest-King. Researchers were familiar with the history and Priest-Kings of Mesopotamia.
3. The statue in Mohenjo Daro resembled the Priest-King of Mesopotamia and that is why the historians thought Harappa too had Priest-Kings.
4. But we have not been able to understand much about the religions and rituals of the Harappan people. So there is no way to know whether the priests also handled political power.
5. Some people say that Harappan Society had more than one ruler. They say that regions like Mohenjo Daro, Harappa and others had separate rulers.
6.  R. S. Sharma feels that it was a group of traders that ruled Harappa.
7. The resemblance of the goods made, evidences from the planned settlements, similarity in the size and shape of bricks, establishing settlements in areas near raw materials, etc.
8. make some people think that Harappa had a single ruler. This has become more acceptable. It would be difficult to take decisions on such complex things by consulting everybody.

Question 26.
The shortcomings in the excavations in Harappa by John Marshal were remedied by Mortimer Wheeler. Comment.
Answer:
Mortimer Wheeler believed that the Harappan culture was destroyed by Aryan invaders. From the narrow street called Deadman-line, which was only 3 feet to 6 feet wide, in Mohenjo Daro, many scattered skeletons of men, women and children were discovered. Along with some skeletons, there were also weapons like axes and spears. It is based on these that Mortimer Wheeler came out with his theory of the Aryan Invasion. Wheeler maintained that these skeletons were of those killed in the Aryan attack.

Wheeler also tried to connect this evidence to the Rigveda. In Rigveda there is a reference to ‘puram’. Puram means fortress or citadel. The warlord of the Aryans is Lord Indran. indran is also called purandaran, which means one who destroys fortresses. It is based on this that some people argued that the Harappan culture was destroyed by the Aryans.
In the 1960s, George Dales, who is an archaeological researcher from America, questioned the evidences of mass murder in Mohenjo Daro. This is what he said:

1. The skeletons found in the Deadman-line do not belong to the same period.
2. There are no indications of any destructions or burning there. No skeletons of soldiers were found from there. Even in the fortress, which is the safest point in the city, there is no sign of any resistance.

Question 27.
Point out the special features of the Harappan Scripts.
Answer:
The Harappans knew writing. They were the first literate community of India. What we know about the Harrapan Scripts is from their seals. On the seals generally, there is a single-line writing. That is usually the name of the owner of his title or designation. Such scripts are seen on copper utensils, edges of jars, copper and day tablets, ornaments, ancient signboards and so on.

They also must have been j found, on things that get destroyed fast. Harappan Script is often called Mysterious Script. It acquired this j name because nobody has been able to read it. j Harappan Script had many symbols and signs. Most l writings are very small. Long writings were rare. The longest writing has only 26 letters of signs.

Harappan Script does not have any orderly alphabet. It has a number of signs. It is believed that there are J between 375 and 400 signs in it. Therefore people think that the Harappan Script is a kind of Picture Script. Scholars say that the picture script helped even those who were illiterate to get some message from the writing. Harappan writing was read from right to left, like Arabic or Urdu.

Question 28.
Explain the role played by the Aryan Invasion in the ruin of Harappan Culture. Examine the relevance of the theory of Aryan Invasion.
Answer:
Mortimer Wheeler believes that the Aryan Attack destroyed Harappan Culture. From the narrow street called Deadman-line, which was only 3 feet to 6 feet wide, in Mohenjo Daro, many scattered skeletons of men, women and children were discovered. Along with some skeletons, there were also weapons like axes and spears. It is based on these that Mortimer Wheeler came out with his theory of the Aryan Invasion. Wheeler maintained that these skeletons were of those killed in the Aryan attack.

Wheeler also tried to connect this evidence to the Rigveda in Rigveda there is a reference to ‘puranr’. Puram means fortress or citadel. The warlord of the Aryans is Lord  Indran. Indran is also called purandaran, which means one who destroys fortresses. It is based on this that some people, led by Mortimer Wheeler, argued that the Harappan culture was destroyed by the Aryans.

Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions And Answers Question 29.
Write an essay on the economic system, society and political power centre of the Harappan Culture. Areas to be considered: means of livelihood (agriculture and animal husbandry), production of artefacts, internal and external trade, social differences, palaces and kings.
Answer:
A great culture flourished in the North-Western side of the Indian subcontinent, some 4500 years ago. This culture was first discovered in 1921 at the Harappan site. This was known as the Sindhu River Valley Culture, it was so-called because most of the sites were found on the banks of Sindhu and its tributaries.

Further researches showed that it was not limited to the Sindhu Valley alone, but it had spread even into Afghanistan. Therefore this culture is named the Harappan Culture.

The Harappans made their living by practising agriculture and animal husbandry. They had different crops. They also tamed different animals. From the burnt remains of grain and seeds found in the Harappan sites, archaeologists have been able to conclude the types of food the Harrapanstook.

They took/different types of grains and vegetables. They used wheat, barley, different kinds of pulses and peas and sesame (gingelly). They also used rice and millet. At the sites in Gujarat, remains of millet were found. Rice was seen only rarely.

The Harrapans ate a lot of fish and meat. The bones of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig were found at the Harappan sites. They tamed these animals. They had tamed even wild pigs, deer and gharial (large fish¬eating crocodile) which are usually wild animals.

Most Harappan sites were located in semi-deserts. Since the land was dry, there was a need for water for agriculture. For irrigation, the people made canals. At the Harappan site of Shortugai in Afghanistan, there are remains of the canals. Well, water was also used for irrigation. There were also huge clay jars to storing water for agricultural purposes.

In the Harappan society, there were economic and social differences among people. From the ways they buried their dead, the luxury they used and the different types of houses they lived in, show these differences.

Burials:
To find out the social differences among the people, a technique (strategy) that researchers use is studying about their burial rituals. The tombs found at the Harappan sites give some ideas about the burial rituals of the people. Generally, the Harappans buried their dead. But there are differences in digging the grave. On the upper sides some graves, along the edges, bricks were laid out. The differences in these graves indicate the differences in the social status. The graves with bricks might have been the graves of the rich.

Things of Luxury:
Another method the researchers use to find out the differences among people is studying the artefacts (things made by people).

They divide these things into two types.

1.  Useful things,
2. Things of luxury.

In the first category, there are things of everyday use. Pounding stone (for grinding grains), clay pots, needles; body-cleaning things etc. come in this category. These were commonly found in the graves of the lower town where common people lived. Things of luxury include uncommon things, things made of expensive materials not locally available, things made with the help of complicated technologies and so on.

Pots of faience (glazed pots) are examples of this. They are made with local or metallic sand mixed with colour and gum and are made firm in the fire. Since they were difficult to make they were considered expensive. Only the rich people had luxury things with them.

Different kinds of Houses:
From a study of the different houses, we can know about the social differences among the Harappan people. The houses ranged from single-room to multi-storied houses. They clearly indicate the social differences among people. The palatial houses belonged to the rich. The poor lived in single-room houses.

The Harappans were experts in bead-making. To make beads they used different kinds of materials. They used different kinds of stones like carnelian, jasper, sapphire, crystal, alabaster or limestone. They also used metals like copper, bronze and gold. They also made use of shells, faience and clay to make beads. They were also great traders. They traded with faraway places like Oman, Mesopotamian, Bahrein and Persia.

There are no exact details about who the rulers were and which was the centre of power in Harappa. Archaeologists found a huge building in Mohenjo Daro. It is considered to be a palace. But nothing about the building or other evidences are available.

Some historians argue that Harappan towns were ruled by Priest-Kings. Some people say that Harappan Society had more than one ruler. They say that regions like Mohenjo, Harappa and others had separate rulers. R. S. Sharma feels that it was a group of traders that ruled Harappa.

Question 30.
Discuss the discovery of the Harappan Culture and the problems connected with it.
Answer:
It was an English Official named Charles Masson, who visited a Harappan village in 1826, that first made an observation about the Harappan Civilization. He happened to see the remains of an old city. The engineers who were building the railway line between Karachi and Lahore in 1856 also found the remains of ancient Harappan towns. These discoveries were quite accidental. The engineers contacted the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). Following this, a team of archaeological researchers under Cunningham started excavations in Harappa.

Harappan culture was completely ruined. Gradually memories of such a Culture also faded away from the minds of people. Centuries later, people who started living in those areas where the Harappan Culture flourished often came across evidence of that Culture by chance.

Through floods or erosion, some of the evidence became very obvious. When ploughing the land or digging the ground for hidden treasures, they discovered remains of the ancient Culture. They did not know what to do with the things and implements they accidentally discovered.

Cunningham was the first Direct General of the Archaeological Survey of India. It was in the middle of the 19^th century that he began his excavations. In those days the archaeological researchers mainly used books and inscriptions for their studies. Cunningham was more interested in studying about the period between the 6^th to the 4^th century BC.

To find out the early settlements of the Harappan Culture, Cunningham relied on the descriptions of the Chinese pilgrims who visited India between the 7^th and 4^th century BC. All the inscriptions that were discovered by Cunningham during his researches were collected, codified and translated. He found that some of the artefacts discovered during the excavations had cultural values. He made special efforts to collect such things. But Cunningham’s conclusions had certain shortcomings.

Sites like Harappa were not mentioned in the descriptions by the Chinese pilgrims on whom Cunningham depended for his information. Harappa was not known as a historical city. Although Cunningham found certain Harappan things, he could not understand their importance.

He also failed to know how old they were. An Englishman had given Cunningham a Harappan seal. Although he inspected the seal thoroughly he could not assess its age. He tried to place it within the time-limit with which he was familiar. This mistake happened because like many others he also thought the Sindhu River Valley Civilization started with the growth of the first cities there.

Question 31.
Explain the salient features of the town planning in Mohenjo Daro.
Answer:
Mohenjo Daro is the most important site of the Harappan Culture. This was discovered after Harappa. It was from Mohenjo Daro that details regarding town planning, houses and seals of the Harappan Culture were got. This big city is situated in the Larkana District of Sind, on the shores of Sindhu River. The word Mohenjo Daro means the Mound of the Dead. The excavations made here brought to light the remains of a great city. The city was divided into two: The citadel and the Lower Town.

The Citadel (Fortress) is on a manmade platform. This is built on the western side of the city. This is the highest part of the city. There are two reasons for . its height. Firstly, it is built on higher ground. Secondly, the buildings are put up on a platform made of earthen bricks.

The fortress is protected with walls around it. Therefore it looks different from the Lower Town. In the fortress, there are tall buildings. They are public buildings. They were used for special public activities. The Warehouse and the Great Bath were the main structures in the fortress.

The Warehouse was the biggest building in Mohenjo Daro. The bottom part of the Warehouse is made of bricks. They still remain there. The upper part was built with wood. It got destroyed long ago. The Warehouse was used to store the left-over grain.

The most important structure in the fortress (citadel) of Mohenjo Daro is the Great Bath. It is in a rectangular shape. The pond is in the yard which is surrounded by corridors on all four sides. To get into the pond there are steps on the northern and southern sides. The bottom of the pond is made watertight using bricks and lime paste. This prevents the water from seeping down and making the pond dry.

There are rooms on 3 sides of the pond. There was a big well in one of the rooms. The water for the pond was brought from this well. There were provisions for filling the pond with water and to make the dirty water flow out into drains. Historians think that the Great Bath had a religious importance. They think that this Great Bath was used for ritual baths.

The Great Bath shows the importance the Harappans gave to cleanliness. It also shows their engineering and technical skills. The plight of Harappa was really bad. Although Harappa was the first site to be discovered, thieves took away all the bricks. This sad plight was noticed by Alexander Cunningham. He pointed out that a huge amount of bricks was taken away. Thus most of the ancient buildings were lost. But Mohenjo Daro was better protected.

Most Harappan settlements had two parts – a higher western part and a lower eastern part. The western part is called the citadel or fortress. It was protected by walls. But there are some differences in some places. In Lothal, the citadel had no walls around. But it was built very high.

The Lower Town was just below the citadel. This was also protected by walls. People lived here. Here we can see good examples of domestic architecture. The houses were made of bricks. The houses were ordered in the Grid System. The houses were built along both sides of the road, with adequate space between houses. The doors and windows were opened to face the central yard. It is believed that the yard was used for cooking and also weaving.

The houses did not have doors and windows that faced the street. All the houses had bathrooms. They were paved with bricks. The drainage system was excellent. Houses were different in size. There were single room and double room houses. There were also houses with more than two storeys. To get to the top stories there were staircases. Big houses had wells. It was dug in a room in such a way that even outsiders could draw water from it. Experts estimate that Mohenjo Daro had some 700 wells.

Houses were built on raised platforms. The settlements were well planned. The bricks were made to certain specifications. The same kind of bricks were used in most constructions. The drainage system in the Harappan cities was excellent. The drain of each house was linked to the drainage canal outside. The drainage canals were covered with bricks or sheets of rock. In some places, they covered the drainage canals with limestone slabs.

It was possible to clean the canals by removing the top coverings. There were manholes in the public drainage. It is believed that the drainage was made first and then came the houses. The drainage system shows the engineering skill of the Harappan people. It shows they had a town administration. It also shows how much importance they gave to hygiene and health. The drainage system was not limited to big cities. Even the settlements in places like Lothal had drainages.

You can Download Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 4 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 4 Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings (Cultural Developments)

Question 1.
From which language does the word Stupa come?
Answer:
Sanskrit

Question 2.
Who got the Sanchi Stupa built?
Answer:
Asoka

Question 3.
Who used to organize the Ashwamedha Yagas?
Answer:
Kings

Question 4.
In which language was the Vedas written?
Answer:
Sanskrit

Question 5.
Where was Buddha born?
Answer:
Lumbini

Question 6.
Where was Mahavira born?
Answer:
Kundagramam

Question 7.
Which was the first venue where Buddha began to teach?
Answer:
Saranath

Question 8.
With which religion are the 4 Arya Satyas connected?
Answer:
Buddhism

Question 9.
Which is the book that contains the laws of Buddha Sangha?
Answer:
Sutta Pitaka

Question 10.
Who was the first woman who was admitted to Buddhism?
Answer:
Mahaprajapati Gomati

Question 11.
The caves that were carved out in rocks for Buddha Bikshustolive?
Answer:
Viharas

Question 12.
In which year was Buddha born?
Answer:
563BC

Question 13.
Match the items in Column A with the items in Column B.

A	B
Iran	Socrates
China	Buddha
Greece	Confucius
India	Zarathurashtra

Answer:

A	B
Iran	Zarathurashtra
China	Confucius
Greece	Socrates
India	Buddha

Question 14.

A	B
The birth place of Buddha	Saranath
The place of Buddha’s Enlightenment	Lumbini
The place where Buddha preached first	Kushinagaram
The place where Buddha achieved Nirvana	Buddhagaya

Answer:

A	B
The birth place of Buddha	Lumbini
The place of Buddha’s enlightenment	Buddhagaya
The place where Buddha preached first	Saranath
The place where Buddha achieved Nirvana	Kushinagaram

Question 15.
Where is Sanchi Stupa located? What are its special features?
Answer:
The Sanchi Stupa is located on a hill in a small village called Sanchi Kanakera. This place is 20 miles north-east of Bhopal, the capital of Madhya Pradesh. Sanchi Stupa has different constructions and on the whole, it looks like a crown. Here we can see a temple built in the 5^th century BC and many other historical monuments and also a huge mound. The Sanchi Stupa was built by Asoka in the 3^rd century BC. During the time of the Sungas (183-72 BC), this was further developed.

Question 16.
Who are the ones who tried to take away the eastern gate of Sanchi? Why?
Answer:
The Sanchi Stupa was discovered in 1818. Europeans of the 19^th century were greatly interested in this – Stupa. The French wanted to exhibit the eastern gate of Sanchi in a museum in France. They tried to get permission from Shajahan Begum, the ruler of Bhopal. But they failed in their attempts. Some English people. also tried such methods. In the end, both the French and the English had to satisfy themselves with the plaster cast of the Stupa.

Question 17.
Who protected the Sanchi Stupa? Write the names of two Patrons.
Answer:
Shajahan Begum and her successor Sultan Jahan Begum protected the Stupa. They spent a lot of money in the maintenance of this ancient monument. Sultan (This is just a name and not a position) Jahan Begum (1901-1926) took great interest in the matters related to Sanchi.

She donated money to build a museum and a guest house there. It was by staying in this guest house, John Marshal wrote volumes about Sanchi. To publish the writings of John Marshal also, Jahan Begum sanctioned money. John marshal dedicated his books to Sultan Jahan Begum.

1. The protection and maintenance of the Sanchi monuments were possible because of the discretion and foresight of the rulers of Bhopal.
2. It was a great fortune that they were made safe from the greedy eyes of railway contractors, builders and the Europeans who wanted to take them away to Europe.
3. Sanchi is one of the most important Buddhist centres in India. The discovery of this completely upset our earlier concepts and understanding of Buddhism, This place is now under the protection of the Archaeological Survey of India.

Question 18.
Make a list of the famous thinkers that lived in the 6^th century BC.
Answer:
The 6^th century BC was a turning point in world history. In many parts of the world there were different philosophers that were contributing to human thought and understanding. In Iran Zaratushtra, In China Confucius, in Greece Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, in India Mahavira and Gautama Buddha -all these people lived in this period.

Question 19.
Kings conducted big Yagas. Explain them.
Answer:
In the beginning, yagas were conducted in large groups for the entire people. But from 1000 to 500 BC, yagas were conducted privately by householders for the prosperity of their family or.clan. But great yagas like Rajasuyam and Ashwamedhom were conducted only by kings and chiefs.

1. The yagas and rituals lost their earlier simplicity and purity. They became more noisy, showy, expensive and even violent. Such yagas were unaffordable by, ordinary people.
2. With the increase in the yagas and rituals, the importance and prestige of Brahmins began to increase. Things like yagas became the monopoly of Brahmins. They misused their position to exploit people.

Question 20.
The travel of Siddhartha outside the palace utterly changed his life. Explain.
Answer:
The real name of Buddha was Siddhartha. He was the son of Suddhodana, the head of the Sakya Tribe. Siddhartha was born in Lumbini near Kapilavastu, in 563 BC. He showed much interest in religious matters even when he was very young.

He married his relative Yasodhara early and they had a son named Rahulan. One day the chariot driver took Siddhartha to the world outside the palace. This changed his life. He saw 4 big ‘sights’ – an old man, a sick person, a dead body and a sanyasi (ascetic).

These sights upset Siddhartha. He became aware of the mortality of man. He realized that the body becomes weaker and weaker and then it dies. The ascetic he met was sick and old but the joy and peace in him surprised Siddhartha. He then decided to follow the path of the ascetic. Soon he left the palace seeking the Ultimate Truth. This incident in the life of Buddha is known as the ‘Great Renunciation’.

To seek the Ultimate Truth, Buddha tried different things. He even tried to torture his body till he«was about to die. Then he abandoned such extreme measures, and sat under a Bodhi tree, immersed in meditation. He then received Enlightenment. From then he was known as Buddha (One who is endowed with Wisdom or Enlightenment) orTathagathan (One who has gained the Truth).

1. Buddha made his first preaching (Dharmopadesam) in Saranath. Here he spoke to five ascetics whom he knew before. This preaching is known as ‘Dharma Chakra Pravarthanam’. These five ascetics became his first disciples.
2. The rest of his life Buddha taught about Dharma or the true way of life. He died in his 80^th year, in 486 BC at Kushinagari. His mortal remains were buried in 8 different places and it is believed that in all those places Stupas were built.

Question 21.
What are the basic principles of Buddhism?
Answer:
The basis of Buddhism is Four Arya (Noble) Truths with Ashtangamarga. The 4 Noble Truths Buddha taught are:

1. The world is a sorrowful place.
2. Desires are the cause of sorrow.
3. If we deny our desires, we can avoid sorrow.
4. By following the Ashtanga Marga, you can overcome sorrow.

The ashtanga margas are: right word, right deed, right life, right efforts, right memory, right view, right decision and right meditation.

Question 22.
Explain the structural working of Buddhism. Do you think that the Buddhist Sangha worked in a democratic manner? Justify.
Answer:
The disciples of Buddha belonged to different social classes. There were kings, rich people, and householders among his disciples. There were also labourers, artisans and even slaves in the group. Inside the Sangha all were equal. Once a person becomes a Bikhshu or Bikshuni, his/her previous position did not matter.

The bhikhus and bikhshunis were required to follow the Sangha rules. All these rules are explained in ‘Viriaya Pitaka’. The rules were made in such a way that they would help people to come away from their luxurious lifestyles and live in a simple way. The Sangha followed’ a democratic way.

The internal, working of the Sangha was based on the traditions of the Ganas and Sanghas in the Mahajanapadas. Problems were solved through discussions. If there were differing views, things were settled by vote.

Question 23.
What are Chaitanyas?
Answer:
From the very early times, people used to consider some places as very holy. These places had some special features. There were some rare trees or rocks there. The places were also extremely beautiful. In them there were small kovils or shrines. These places were called Chaitanya’s. Chaitanya came from the word ‘chitha’. In fact, Chaitanya is a prayer hall.

Question 24.
Explain hagiography. What is its role in recreating history?
Answer:
Hagiography is the life history of a religious leader or a saint. To understand the Buddha statues, art historians must be familiar with Buddha’s hagiography. Usually, in a hagiography, the achievements of the saint or leader are praised. They may not be fully true. But they are important, as they give us valuable information regarding the traditions followed by disciples of certain faiths.

Biographical records show that Buddha got his Enlightenment as he was meditating under the Bodhi Tree. In many statues, Buddha is not shown at all. Sometimes he is represented as an empty seat, Stupa, wheel and such symbols.

1. The empty seat is symbolic of Buddha’s meditation.
2. The Stupas symbolize his final days, or death (Mahaparinirvana).
3. The wheel is symbolic of Buddha’s first preaching at Saranath.

Question 25.
In the background of the Sanchi Stupa, describe the making style and structure of the stupas. How do stupas help in the recreation of history?
Answer:
Stupas are found in Chaitanya’s. These are mounds where part of the mortal remains of Buddha or some things he used is buried. They have been made with bricks or stones. They have a lot of story value.

1. Even before the coming of Buddhism, the practice of making stupas was in existence. Later it became attached to Buddhism.
2. Since they are built over the remains of Buddha or the things he used, they are worshipped as a sign of Buddha and Buddhism.

Followers of Buddha built many stupas in different. parts of India. The Buddhist Book “Asokavadana Sishta” says that Emperor Asoka sent the mortal remains of Buddha to all the important towns of his empire and ordered stupas to be built over them. By the 2^nd century BC, many stupas were built. The most famous stupas are in Bharhut, Sanchi, and Saranath. Stupa is a Sanskrit word meaning a heap or mound. In the early times, stupas were in semi-circles.

Later they were known as ‘anda’. Gradually, the structure of the stupas became complex. They now acquired circular and rectangular shapes. Over the andas, they built some kind of balcony. It was called harmika which means ‘sreekovil’. It represents the abode of god. From harmika rose a flag-post, called ‘yashti’. Around this, there were chhatris (umbrellas). Around the mound, a stone wall was constructed separating it from the material world around.

The early stupas in Sanchi and Bharhut were simple. The gates and the fences were looking as if they were made of bamboos or wood. There were four entrance arches to the stupas. These arches were decorated with sculptures. The worshippers entered the stupa from the eastern archway and went round the mound, Later these stupas were adorned with various sculptures and inscriptions. Such decorated stupas can be seen in Amaravati and Shahji-ki-dheri in Peshawar in Pakistan.

Question 26.
Explain the principles of Jainism.
Answer:

• All things in the world have life. Even stones, rocks, and water have life and soul.
• Non-violence is the central principle of Jainism. It taught not to trouble humans, animals, insects and plants.
• The ultimate aim of human life is nirvana or getting moksha.
• Nirvana is the release from birth and rebirth.
• Karma causes birth and rebirth. If one wants to get moksha, his karma should be right. Only through the Triratnas – good knowledge, good action, and good faith-one can acquire moksha.
• To come out of the karma circle, asceticism and meditation are essential. For that worldly life should be given up. The Jain ascetics, both men and women, should take five pledges.
  1. Don’t kill
  2. Don’t steal
  3. Don’t lie
  4. Don’t own property
  5. Practise chastity

Question 27.
Bring out the basic differences between Mahayana and Hinayana.
Answer:
Buddhism was divided into two Mahayarta and Hinayana.

1. Hinayana means lesser vehicle or lesser wheel. Hinayana followed the basic tenets of Buddhism. They followed the old tradition. They continued using Pali to propagate their faith.

2. Mahayana means Great vehicle. They followed new principles and code of conduct. Worshipping the idols of Buddha and the Bodhisatwas became an important part of this group.

3. Mahayana followers looked at Buddha as a savior and worshipped him as a god. They prayed to him for moksha and guidance. Thus piety became the main feature of Mahayana Buddhism.

4. Mahayana followers believed in the concept of Bodhisatwa. Each follower here should try to become a Bodhisatwan. By serving others and performing Doble deeds anybody can become a Bodhisatwan.

5. Mahayana followers worshipped even some famous Bodhisatwans.To propagate Buddhism, Mahayana followers used Sanskrit.

Question 28.
The Stupa in Amaravati was neglected but the one in Sanchi was protected. Why?
Answer:
Amaravati Stupa was discovered before the discovery at Sanchi. But the scholars were not then aware of the importance of preserving the historical monuments. Sanchi was discovered in 1818. Of the 4 doors, three were still intact. The 4^th was lying down. The mound did not have any damage. The Europeans tried take away the doors to London or Paris, but because of the timely interference of the rulers in Bhopal, they were protected. But the ‘Mahachaitanya’ of Amaravati still remains as a small mound. It has lost all its past glory.

Question 29.
Were women allowed into the Buddhist Sangha? Clarify.
Answer:
In the beginning, only men could be members. But later women were also included. It was because of the persuasion by Ananda, who was one of the dearest disciples of Buddha, that Buddha allowed women into the Sangha. They were known as ‘bikhshunis’. The first bikhshuni was the foster mother of Buddha. Her name was Mahaprajapati Gomathy. All bikhshunis were propagators of the religion. They tried hard to become ‘theri’ – respectable women who were entitled to moksha.

Question 30.
Why were the stupas built? What is their importance?
Answer:
Stupas are holy places. These are mounds where part of the mortal remains of Buddha or some things he used is buried. They have been made with bricks or stones. They have a lot of story value.

1. Even before the coming of Buddhism, the practice of making stupas was in existence. Later it became attached to Buddhism.
2. Since they are built over the remains of Buddha or the things he used, they are worshipped as a sign of Buddha and Buddhism.

Followers of Buddha built many stupas in different parts of India. The Buddhist Book “Asokavadana Sishta” says that Emperor Asoka sent the mortal remains of Buddha in all the important towns of his empire and ordered stupas to be built over them. By the 2^nd century BC, many stupas were built. The most famous stupas are in Bharhut, Sanchi and Saranath.

Question 31.
Do you think the stupas were built from the donations received from people? Justify.
Answer:
On the pillars and bars of the stupas, there are many inscriptions. These inscriptions record that the stupas were built with the donations from people. From a different sections of the society, funds came.

1. Some donations came from kings like Satavahanan.
2. Guilds also gave donations. It was the artisans who made sculptures with ivory that gave the money to make a door in Sanchi.
3. Ordinary men and women also gave donations, their names, profession, birthplace, and names of their relatives are inscribed on the stones.
4. Bhikshus and Bikshunis also gave their contributions to building the stupas.

Question 32.
Describe the structure and style of making of the stupas.
Answer:
Stupa is a Sanskrit word meaning a heap or mound. In the early times, stupas were in semi-circles. Later they were known as ‘anda’. Gradually, the structure of the stupas became complex. They now acquired circular and rectangular shapes. Over the andas, they built some kind of balcony.

It was called harmika which means ‘sreekovil’. It represents the abode of god. From harmika rose a flag-post, called ‘yashti’. Around this, there were chhatris (umbrellas). Around the mound, a stone wall was constructed separating it from the material world around.

The early stupas in Sanchi and Bharhut were simple. The gates and the fences were looking as if they were made of bamboos or wood. There were four entrance arches to the stupas. These arches. were decorated with sculptures. The worshippers entered the stupa from the eastern archway arid went round the mound, Later these stupas were adorned with various sculptures and inscriptions. Such decorated stupas can be seen in Amaravati and Shahji-ki-dheri in Peshawar in Pakistan.

Question 33.
Why did Buddhism become popular? To which all countries did it spread?
Answer:
Even during Buddha’s lifetime and also after his death Buddhism began to grow popular. It spread into China, Japan, Burma, Sri Lanka, Mangolia and Tibet. The quickly changing social environment and the dissatisfaction of people with the existing religious practices attracted them to Buddhism. The following were the additional reasons:

1. Buddhism gave preference to values and conduct more than to birth. It rejected the caste system.
2. It stressed compassion, especially to the children and the destitute.
3. Its principles were easily understandable.
4. Buddha used Pali, the language of the common people, to propagate his religion. It increased its popularity.
5. It got the support of kings like Asoka, Kanishka, and Harsha.
6. The working of the Buddhist Sanghas also helped in increasing its popularity.

Question 34.
In ancient Hindu Religion there are two Traditions. What are they? What are their salient features?
Answer:
The two traditions are Vaishnava religion and Saiva religion.

1. Vaishnavas worshipped Vishnu as the main god. Saivas worshipped Siva. In their worship piety was the main factor. Piety is the love and dedication the worshipper shows his god.

2.  In Vaishnava religion, the followers accepted the ten avatars of Vishnu. The Vaishnavites believed that whenever the world was threatened by immoral powers with violence and destruction, Vishnu appeared as a new avatar to save the believers.

3. Different avatars became popular in different parts of the country. Local deities were also viewed as Vishnu’s avatar. It was a way to make a unified religious tradition. In different sculptures, Vishnu appeared in different forms.

Question 35.
Find out the relation between the items in A and complete the blank in B accordingly.

1.a) Mahayanam – Big wheel
b) Hinayanam – …………

2.a) Jainism-Triratnas
b) Buddhism – ………..

3.a) Mahavira – Kuntagramam
b) Buddha – ……….
Answer:
1. small wheel
2. Ashtangamangas
3. Lumbini

Question 36.
The 6^th century BC was a period of social revolutions in India. On the basis of this statement, explain the origin of Buddhism and Jainism.
Answer:
Areas to be considered:

1. Yaga tradition
2. Brahmin authority
3. New Economic system
4. Fresh questions
5. Discussions and Talks
6. Sacrifices and Debates

The 6^th century BC was a turning point in world history. Many philosophers were found in different parts of the world. In Iran Zaratushtra, In China Confucius, in Greece Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, in India Mahavira and Gautama Buddha -all these people lived in this period.

1. They tried to find out the mysteries of existence.
2. They tried to find the relations between man and the universe.
3. They tried to analyze the social and economic happenings of the time.

In India, the 6^th century BC was a period of social revolution. In the Ganges valley, new Empires and cities came up. Social and economic life of the people was changing in various ways. These changes caused many religions to come up. The most important of them were Jainism and Buddhism. Let’s see the causes for their rise.

Sacrificial Tradition: Even before the coming of Jainism and Buddhism, different philosophical concepts and religious traditions were in existence. One of them was the Veda tradition. We know things about that period from Rigveda, which was collected between 1500 and 1000 BC.

Rigveda is a collection of hymns praising gods like Fire, Indra, and Soman. These hymns were recited during the sacrifices (Yagas) which were performed by the people to have health, children, cattle wealth and long life.

In the beginning, yagas were conducted in large groups for the entire people. But from 1000 to 500 BC, yagas were conducted privately by householders for the prosperity of their family or clan. But great yagas like Rajasuyam and Ashwamedhom were conducted only by kings and chiefs.

The yagas and rituals lost their earlier simplicity and purity. They became more noisy, showy, expensive and even violent. Such yagas were unaffordable by ordinary people. With the increase in the yagas and rituals, the importance and prestige of Brahmins began to increase. Things like yagas became the monopoly of Brahmins. They misused their position to exploit people.

The Problems of Jati and Language: In the post-Veda period the society was divided into 4 Varnas. It caused a lot of conflicts in the society. Brahmins claimed the highest status. They had special rights. They were exempted from taxes and punishment. The Kshatriyas objected to this. Since Mahavira and Buddha were Kshatriyas, they too were against this Brahmin domination.

Vaisyas and Sudras opposed the authority of the higher Varnas. Although the Vaisyas had money and power, their position was lower than the Brahmins and Kshatriyas. Naturally they welcomed the new religions.

All the Vedic books were written in Sanskrit. So, most of the people did not understand anything. The incantations for yagas and rituals were recited in Sanskrit. People repeated them without knowing what they said. Mahavira and Buddha propagated their religions in Pali and Prakrit. So people accepted them easily.

The New Economic System: The growth of the agricultural economy helped the new religions to develop. The use of iron made it possible to clear forests and make bigger farms. Agricultural technologies also became better. The development of agriculture increased the demand for cattle, as bullocks were used for ploughing the farms.

Brahmins killed a lot of cattle for various sacrifices and therefore there was a reduction in the cattle wealth. Priestly sacrifices of animals became an obstacle for agriculture. Naturally, people welcomed the new religions which advocated non-violence.

New Questions: The philosophical questions in the Upanishads also made people unhappy. The Upanishads say that people were interested in knowing the essence of life, the possibility of life after death, rebirth, etc. Issues like the relation of karma with rebirth caused a lot of heated debates. People were interested in finding out the Ultimate Truth.

Many people even doubted if there is anything called the Ultimate Truth. They also doubted the importance of Veda tradition. Debates and Discussions: We get some idea about the debates and discussions of those times from the Buddhist books. There were some 64 different kinds of ideological streams.

Religious teachers travelled across the country and discussed matters with the common people. They tried to impress upon the people with the importance of their thinking. People also discussed and debated these matters. These discussions were conducted in some special tents with tapering tops called ‘kudagarasala’ or in groves where the bikshus stayed during their journeys. If one philosopher defeated another one in a debate, the followers of the defeated one would follow the winning philosopher. Therefore the support for a particular stream would increase or decrease fast.

People like Mahavira and Buddha questioned the authenticity of the Vedas. They gave importance to personal actions. They asked the people, men and women, to make efforts to be free from the worries and anxieties of this world. Their attitude was quite different from the attitude of the Brahmins who gave importance to one’s birth and not his way of life.

Question 37.
Write an essay defining the principles of Buddhism, Buddha Sangha and the Spread of Buddhism.
Answer:
It is from stories that we learn about the principles of Buddhism, especially from “Suttapitaka”. Some of the stories here describe the miraculous powers of Buddha, There are also stories which speak highly of his wisdom, logic and sense of reality. These stories point out that without showing any miracles, he tried to teach people things logically.

For example there is this story. A mother whose son had died came to Buddha asking him to bring her dead son back to life. He did not perform any miracle of raising the boy from death. But he convinced the mother about the inevitability of death.

All these stories are written in Pali, the language of the common people. So, people could understand them easily. In his first preaching at Saranath we can see the important principles of Buddhism.

The world continuously changes. There is nothing permanent or immortal in it. There is no soul in it. In short the world is without eternity and without soul. The basis of Buddhism is Four Noble Truths (Arya Satyas) with Ashtangamarga. The Noble Truths are:

1. The world is a sorrowful place.
2. Desires are the cause of sorrow.
3. If we deny our desires, we can avoid sorrow.
4. By following the Ashtanga Maiga, you can overcome sorrow.

The ashtanga margas are: right word, right deed, right life, right efforts, right memory, right view, right decision and right meditation.

Followers of Buddha: For his ascetics Buddha made an organization called ‘Sangha’. Their main duty was preaching or dharmopadesa. They lived a simple life keeping only the basic necessities. They had a small bowl for taking alms. Since they lived with the alms they received they were known as ‘bikshus’. Initially there were only men. But because of the influence of Ananda, a favourite disciple of Buddha, women also were enrolled. They were called bikshunis. The first bikshuni was Buddha’s foster mother, Mahaprajapati Gomathy. All bikshunis wanted to be ‘theri’, respectable women who have got moksha.

The disciples of Buddha belonged to different social classes. There were kings, rich people, and householders among his disciples. There were also labourers, artisans and even slaves in the group. Inside the Sangha all were equal. Once a person becomes a Bikhshu or Bikshuni, his/her previous position did not matter.

The bikhshus and bikhshunis were required to follow the Sangha rules. All these rules are explained in ‘Vinaya Pitaka’. The rules were made in such a way that they would help people to come away from their luxurious lifestyles and live in a simple way. The Sangha followed a democratic way. The internal working of the Sangha was based on the traditions of the Ganas and Sanghas in the Mahajanapadas. Problems were solved through discussions. If there were differing views, things were settled by vote.

The Spread of Buddhism: Even during Buddha’s lifetime and also after his death Buddhism began to grow popular. It spread into China, Japan, Burma, Sri Lanka, Mangolia and Tibet. The quickly changing social environment and the dissatisfaction of people with the existing religious practices attracted them to Buddhism. The following were the additional reasons:

1. Buddhism gave preference to values and conduct more than to birth. It rejected the caste system.
2. It stressed compassion, especially to the children and the destitute.
3. Its principles were easily understandable.
4. Buddha used Pali, the language of the common people, to propagate his religion. It increased its popularity.
5. It got the support of kings like Asoka, Kanishka, and Harsha.
6. The working of the Buddhist Sanghas also helped in increasing its popularity.

Question 38.
What are Stupas? Prepare a note on them.
Answer:
Stupas are holy places. These are mounds where part of the mortal remains of Buddha or some things he used is buried. They have been made with bricks or stones. They have a lot of story value.

1. Even before the coming of Buddhism, the practice of making stupas was in existence. Later it became attached to Buddhism.
2. Since they are built over the remains of Buddha or the things he used, they are worshipped as a sign of Buddha and Buddhism.

Followers of Buddha built many stupas in different parts of India. The Buddhist Book “Asokavadana Sishta” says that Emperor Asoka sent the mortal remains of Buddha in all the important towns of his empire and ordered stupas to be built over them. By the 2^nd century BC, many stupas were built. The most famous stupas are in Bharhut, Sanchi and Saranath.

Stupa is a Sanskrit word meaning a heap or mound. In the early times, stupas were in semi-circles. Later they were known as ‘anda’. Gradually, the structure of the stupas became complex. They now acquired circular and rectangular shapes. Over the andas, they built some kind of balcony. It was called harmika which means ‘sreekovil’. It represents the abode of god. From harmika rose a flag-post, called ‘yashti’. Around this there were chhatris (umbrellas). Around the mound, a stone wall was constructed separating it from the material world around. The early stupas in Sanchi and Bharhut were simple.

The gates and the fences were looking as if they were made of bamboos or wood. There were four entrance arches to the stupas. These arches were decorated with sculptures. The worshippers entered the stupa from the eastern archway and went round the mound, Later these stupas were adorned with various sculptures and inscriptions. Such decorated stupas can be seen in Amaravati and Shahji-ki-dheri in Peshawar in Pakistan.

You can Download Kerala: Towards Modernity Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 15 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 15 Kerala: Towards Modernity

Question 1.
The region in Kerala which was under the direct rule of the British.
Answer:
Malabar

Question 2.
The first book printed entirely in Malayalam?
Answer:
Samkshepavedantham

Question 3.
The person who prepared the first Malayalam Dictionary (Sabdakosam)?
Answer:
Amos Pathiri

Question 4.
The Founder of Samatwa Samajam?
Answer:
Vaikunta Warrier

Question 5.
The Founder of Sadhu Jana Paripalana Sangham?
Answer:
Ayyankali

Question 6.
The founder of Atmavidya Sangham?
Answer:
Vagbhatanandan

Question 7.
The leader who led the ‘Savarna Jadha’?
Answer:
Mannath Padmanabhan

Question 8.
Explain the growth in plantation crops in Kerala during the colonial period.
Answer:
An important change that happened during the colonial period in the economic system of Kerala is the growth in plantation crops. Europeans took the initiative to start new plantations and invest capital in them. The main plantations crops were tea, coffee, rubber, and cardamom. Plantations crops proved more successful in Travancore than in Malabar. There were some reasons for that. The soil and high land of Travancore were better than those of Malabar. Therefore plantations crops developed fast in Travancore. This helped the British to earn a lot of wealth. The tax collection system in Malabar was not good enough.

Question 9.
Point out the role played by missionaries in the modernization of Kerala and in its education.
Answer:
An important driving force behind the growth of Kerala Was its education. The contributions made by missionaries in this field are highly valuable. They played a big role in expanding education. In the first decade of the 19th century, the London Mission Society (LMS) and Church Mission Society (CMS) started working in Travancore.

Rev. Mead was a missionary of CMS, who devoted his entire life in expanding education here. In 1817 the CMS College and a seminary were founded at Kottayam. To encourage women’s education, the missionaries established a grammar school and other schools.

The first school in Kochi was established in 1818 in Mattanchery. A missionary named Rev. Dowson was its founder.

At the same time, Rev Twinkle Tab, a Spanish Missionary in the Salvation Army founded English schools in the southern parts, including Nagercoil.

It was Basil Evangelical Mission (BEM) that spread education in Malabar. In 1848, they established a primary school in Kallai and in 1856, another school at Thalassery.

The contributions made by the Christian missionaries encouraged the governments of Kerala to take up education more seriously. In 1817, the ruler of Travancore, Gauri Parvati Bai, started free, compulsory primary education. In many areas of Travancore, schools were established. In 1839, during the reign of Swathi Thirunal, the first English school was begun. Another school was started in Thalassery.

Question 10.
Make a list of reforms that were brought about in the three regions of Kerala.
Answer:
Malabar

• District and Provincial courts were established.
• A chain of roads was made.
• In Ancharakandi, a spice garden was established.
• Many cloth and tile factories were founded.
• Kozhikode, Thalassery, Kannur Municipalities came into existence.
• Railway link was established with other areas of the country.
• In Nilambur a teak grove was established.
• To bring timber, a canal was made (e.g. Kanoli Canal).
• Timber business was encouraged.

Kochi

• Lower Courts and Huzur Courts were founded.
• All important Devaswoms were brought under the government.
• In 1845, slavery was banned.
• The survey of the land was made and taxes were fixed.
• Railway lines were made.
• Established Health, Agriculture and Fisheries departments.
• Kochi Tenant (Leasing) Law was passed.
• A Staff Selection Board was established.

Travancore

• Owners of land were given ‘pattayams’ showing details of the land.
• Slavery was banned in 1812.
• Renewed judiciary by founding 5 district courts and 1 Appeal Court.
• In 1811, the administration of Dewaswoms was taken over by the Government.
• Improved coinage, communication, agriculture and trade.
• Banned feudal conventions like “talavari” and “Uzhiyam”.
• In 1888, a Law-Making Council with 8 members was formed.
• Founded, many factories, electrification schemes, canals and post office?

Question 11.
The British brought some changes in the laws of Kerala. Find them out.
Answer:
In the system of law that the British brought, there were Western legal thoughts and concepts. They founded a chain of civil and criminal courts. They made sure that principles like the Rule of Law and Equality before Law were enforced. They also made a united legal code that included the laws of the land.

Question 12.
What made Pazhassiraja fight against the British? Write about the various stages of the Pazhassi Revolt.
Answer:
The Pazhassi Revolt was one of the most significant revolts in South India against the British. The British had established their authority over Malabar. Their wrong attitude to justice caused the Revolt. Keralavarma Pazhassiraja was a member of the Kottayam Dynasty of Malabar. In the beginning, he was in friendly terms with the British. In the Mysore wars, he even helped them. As a reward for his help, the British granted him the right to collect taxes from people.

But when Malabar came under their authority, the British forgot this promise. The right to collect taxes was given to an uncle of Pazhassi, the King of Kurumbanad. This King charged the people heavy taxes and used very cruel methods to get the money from them. It was in this context that Pazhassi rebelled against the British.

There were two stages in the Pazhassi Revolt. The 1st stage is from 1793 to 1797. Pazhassi started his revolt by preventing the tax collection for the British. Pazhasi’s army consisted of Muslim and Nair farmers and members of Kurichi tribe. It strongly withstood the attacks by the Company’s army. Pazhassi ‘ requested the help of Mysore to drive away the British from Wayanad. The British army was continuously defeated and in 1797, it withdrew from Wayanad, making an agreement with Pazhassi. With this, the first stage ended. The 2^nd stage of the Revolt started in 1800.

The reason was the move of the British to take over Wayanad. With the help of the Kurichis and Kurumbars in his army, Pazhassi withstood the attacks. Finally, Wellesley defeated Pazhassi in a bitter battle. Pazhassi still continued his resistance. But an army under Thomas Harvey Bebar, a sub-collector of Thalassery, defeated Pazhassi on 30 November 1805, In the battle, Pazhassi lost his life.

Question 13.
There were strong uprisings against the British in Travancore and Kochi. In the context of this statement, describe the anti-colonial activities of Veluthampi Dalava and Paliathacchan.
Answer:
After occupying Malabar, the attention of the British turned to Kochi and Travancore. They tried to establish their political and commercial interests in these places. In 1800, the Company appointed Col. Macaulay as the Resident of Travancore and Kochi. Macaulay started controlling the internal affairs of these native states. By this, the rulers lost their sovereignty.

Veluthampi was the chief minister (Dalawa) of Travancore. In 1805, the British signed a friendship treaty with Travancore. Through this, the Resident got the power to interfere in the internal affairs of the state, which lost its political freedom. He insisted that the tribute which the state owed to the Company should be paid within a certain time, without giving any consideration to the financial difficulties facing the state. One man named Mathu Tharakan owed a lot of money to the state as tax arrears. Velu Thampi Dalawa ordered to confiscate his property. But Macaulay interfered and canceled the order of the Dalawa. All these incidents prompted the Dalawa to embark on an armed conflict against the Company.

Paliathacchan was the Prime Minister of Kochi. He had enmity with Macaulay. Veluthampi Dalawa made a secret agreement with Paliathacchan. They also secretly contacted the French in Mauritius and the Zamorin of Kozhikode and requested them to give their support in their fight against the Company. In 1808 the combined armies of Travancore and Kochi attacked the residence of Macaulay in Kochi. The Resident escaped in a British ship.

As the revolt was in progress the Dalawa reached Kundara. He issued a proclamation on 11 January 1809 asking the people to join him against the British. This is called ‘Kundara Proclamation’ (Kundara Vilambaram). It is considered as an important document showing the fight of South India against colonization.

The British hit back. They attacked Kochi. Paliathacchan withdrew from the revolt by signing a treaty with the British. The British persuaded the Travancore King to remove Velu Thampi from his post. Unnini Thampi became the new Dalawa. The new Dalawa asked the police, to arrest Velu Thampi. A reward was declared for catching him. Velu Thampi took refuge in a house at Mannadi. When the combined forces of the British and Travancore surrounded the house, Velu Thampi committed suicide. He did not want to be caught alive and insulted. With this, the heroic resistance against the British ended in Travancore.

Question 14.
Kerala witnessed a silent but comprehensive social revolution in the 19th and 20th centuries. Evaluate the Social Reformation Movements in Kerala in the context of this statement.
Answer:
In the 19^th century, in Kerala, there were many religious superstitions, rituals, and conventions. There were also social injustices and economic injustices.
The Feudal lords suppressed the farmers. The Upper Castes ill-treated the lower castes. This made the life of poor people miserable. There were so many illogical and even foolish practices related to menstruation, marriage, pregnancy, and death. Slavery also existed here.

• The Kerala Brahmins received a lot of privileges.
• The lower caste people did not have a good position
  in society. The Upper Caste people controlled their modes of dress, freedom to travel and entry into temples.
• There were untouchability and pollution rules. In Travancore and Kochi, government jobs were not given to people of lower classes.

It is in this social background that the Social Reformers started their fight against the ills of society. Although all-India Movements like Arya Samajam and Theosophical Society had their branches in Kerala, their influence was very little here. Here the social revolution was the result of local Movements. Here are some Social Reformists that worked in Kerala in the 19^th and 20^th centuries.

Vaikunda Swamikal: He was bom in 1808, in the . village called Sastamkotta Vila near Kanyakumari. He started Samatwa Samajam’.

He published: ‘AkilattirattuAmmanai’and ‘Arul Nool’.

Reforms:

• For the first time, he started ‘Kannadi Prathishta’ in South India.
• His faith was called the way of the father (“Ayyavazhi”).
• He objected to all kinds of discrimination and stood for social equality.
• He objected to priesthood, idol worship, and animal sacrifice. He worked for the freedom of the lower castes and the welfare of women.

Sri Narayana Guru: Hewas born in the village of Chempazhanthi in Thiruvananthapuram district, in 1854. He founded the Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam.

He published: “Atmopadesa Sathakam”, “Daiva Sathakam”. “Darsanamala”, “ Siva Sathakam” and “Navamanjari”.

Reforms:
Worked for the ending of superstitions and caste discriminations. He encouraged people to take up Western education, trade, and business enterprises.
He made the famous slogan “One Jati, One Religion, One God, for Man”.
He raised his voice against the control by Upper Castes. Shocking the conservatives, he did ‘Siva Pratishta’andAruvipuram.

Chattambi Swamikal: He was born in 1853 at the village of Kollur in Trivandum district. He published ‘Prachina Malayalam’, ‘Adibhasha’ and ‘Vedadikara Nirupanam’.

Reforms:

• He objected Jati and other illogical social rituals.
• He challenged the monopoly of Brahmins to study Vedas.
• Objected to the animal sacrifices in temples.
• He contributed a lot to Malayalam Literature and language.

Ayyankali : He was bdrn in 1863 at Venganur in Trivandum. His Organization was Sadhu Jana Paripalana Sangham. ‘

Reforms:

• He fought for freedom to travel and education for the lower classes.
• He opposed the Jati System. He organized labour protests and agriculture boycotts to get lower-class students admission in public schools.
• Against the restrictions placed on the mode of dress by lower-class people, he organized the ‘Kallumala Protest’. He asked people to break and throw away the. Kallumala’.

Vakkom Abulkhader Moulavi: He was born in 1873, at Vakkom in Chirayinkeezhu.taluk. He made the Travancore Muslim Mahajana Sabha.

He published: Swadesabhimani (edited by K. Ramakrishna Pillai), Al-Islam (An Arabic-Malayalam Magazine).

Reforms:

• He is the architect of the modernization of Kerala Muslims. He asked the Muslims to give up all anti- Islamic rituals.
• He asked the Muslims to get a Western education and to take part in Movements for development.
• He was the founder and owner of Swadeshabhimani Newspaper.

Vagbhatanandan: Hewas born at Patyam in 1885. He founded ‘Atmavidya Sangham’. He published Abhinava Keralam (Magazine), Atmavidya Kahalam (Journal), Sivayogavilasam (Magazine).

Reforms:

• Acknowledged the right of the lower classes to enter temples.
• Showed interest in the economic progress of the lower classes,
• He took active interest in Agricultural Movements.
• He opposed Jati and idol worship. He encouraged Yuktichintha and critical thinking. He was interested in prohibition (of alcohol).

Mar Kuriakose Elias Chavara : He was born in 1805, in the village Kainakari in Kuttanad.

He published: ‘Atmanuthapam’, “Idayariatakangal’, ‘Dhyanasallapangal’ and ‘Nalagamangal’.

Reforms:

• He founded many schools in Central Kerala. He encouraged Sanskrit education. He opened a Sanskrit school at Mannanam, in 1846.
• The founded orphanages for the poor and old people.
• He encouraged the education of dalits. He funded two schools for them.
• He started St. Joseph’s Printing press at Mannanam.
  It was the first indigenous printing press in Kerala.

V.T. Bhattathirippad: He was born in 1896 at Mezhathur.

He published: “Adukkalayil Ninnum Arangathekku” and “Kannirum Kinavum”.

Reforms:

• He fought against the discrimination against the Namboodiri women and widows who had to suffer a lot because of insults and ostracism.
• He opposed dowry and the marrying of young girls to old men.

Question 15.
Women also made a lot of contributions to the Social Reformation Movements of Kerala. Explain with examples.
Answer:
Women have given priceless contributions to the Social Reformation Movements of Kerala. Parvati Nenminimangalam, Arya Pallam, Sarada Amrnal, K.C. Narayani Amma Kalikkutty Asatty etc. did a lot to awaken women and raise their social status. They also worked hard for the removal of social evils that plagued the Kerala society. They helped in the removal of the Jati system, increased women’s education, did a lot for women empowerment and social justice, the prosperity of labourers and farmers, thinking with reason, use of public space and the uplifting of the Dalit community.

Question 16.
Describe the fight for a democratic society in Kerala and how the Shanar Agitation (Channar Lahala), Vaikom Satyagraha and Guruvayur Satyagraha helped in that fight.
Answer:
There were many social evils in Kerala. There was control based on taste. Even basic human rights were denied to some castes. Human dignity did not mean anything to the Upper Classes. Against such injustice, some popular movements worked hard. Here are some of the most important movements.

Shanar Agitation: This was one of the early fights against social injustice. This took place in Southern Travancore. This is also called ‘Melmundu samara’. Women of the Channar Community were not allowed to cover the upper part of their bodies with any doth or dress. Then, when Col. Monroe was the Diwan, he issued an order allowing the Channar women (Nadar) to wear a dress if they became Christians.
The Channar women were not satisfied with this. They started appearing in the public wearing shawls like women of the Upper Classes. The Upper-Class Hindus did not like it. They attacked the Channar women, who retaliated. Finally on 26 July 1859, the government issued a royal edict removing restrictions on the dressing.

Vaikom Satyagraha: This is the first famous public protest against untouchability. This protest was organized forgetting the right to use the paths near the. Vaikom Temple by lower caste Hindus. The leaders of this Satyagraha were T.K. Madhavan, Mannath Padmanabhan, C.V. Kunjuraman, K. Kelappan, and K.P. Kesava Menon.

An important event connected with the Vaikom Satyagraha is a procession of High Caste Hindus organized by Mannath Padmanabhan. The Procession wenttoTrivandum and met Maharani Sethulaxmi Bai and presented their request to her.

The Vaikom Satyagraha and the Savama Procession (Jatha) helped in forming positive public opinion regarding Temple Entry to all Castes. Finally, Gandhi interfered and the protest was successfully concluded. All the paths, except two, around the Vaikom Temple, were opened for use by all kinds of people.

Guruvayur Satyagraha: This was a milestone in the social reform movement of Kerala. It was a great event against untouchability. This protest was begun with the demand that all Hindus should be allowed to worship in the temple. The Guruvayur temple was under the control of the Kozhikode Zamorin and only Upper Caste Hindus could worship there.

The Satyagraha started on 1 November 1931. K. Kelappan and Mannath Padmanabhan led the protest. Kelappan started a fast unto death in front of the temple.

Some fanatic Upper-Class Hindus attacked volunteers like A.K. Gopalan and P. Krishna Pillai. On 2 October 1932, on the advice of Gandhi, the Satyagraha was ended. An opinion poll was conducted in Ponnani Taluk to find out public opinion about the issue. Most of the people supported temple entry by lower caste Hindus also. Although results did not come immediately, the Satyagraha helped in forming public opinion in favour of Temple Entry by all manners of Hindus.

Question 17.
Agitation against untouchability continued in Kerala even after independence. Explain with examples.
Answer:
Agitation against untouchability had to continue in ‘ Kerala even after independence. Paliyam Satyagraha ‘ was one such agitation:
In Kochi, there were many temples in front of the houses of the Upper Caste Hindus. Lower Caste Hindus were denied entry there. Paliathacchan was the Prime Minister of Kochi. His, house was in Chennamangalam. Lower Caste Hindus tried to walk on the road in front of his house and this; brought about big clashes. It was in these circumstances the Paliam Satyagraha was started. This was done jointly by the organizations like State Praja Mandalam, Communist Party, and S.N.D.P. Yogam.

They started to agitate in front of the Paliam Family to get the street open for all. On 4 December 1947, C. Kesavan inaugurated the Satyagraha. The government used force to suppress the agitation. One of the leaders of the agitation, A.G. Velayudhan, was killed and the Satyagraha was suspended for some time, in March 1948. In April 1948, the government issued orders regarding Temple Entry for all. With this, all could use the public streets.

Question 18.
Discuss the formation of Malayali Being and the United (Aikya) Kerala Movement.
Answer:
The Malayalam language played a big role in the cultural unity of people from Travancore, Kochi, and Malabar. The roots of the Malayan Being based on language and region could be traced to “Leelathilakam”, a grammar book of the 14th century. It talks about a community that speaks Malayalam.

In fact, the concept of ‘Malayali Being’ (Individuality or Personality) was formed at the end of the 19th ‘ century. The spread of modern education was the reason for that. It gave the idea of a region where people spoke the same language.

The Printing technology and the founding of local language newspapers also helped in this concept. There was a practice of appointing outsiders to do the work in Government offices of Kerala. In 1891, a mass petition (memorandum) signed by 10,028 persons was submitted against this practice. It was called the Malayali Memorial. This was a sign of new awareness.

The National Movement gained momentum at the beginning of the 20ttl century. The concept of Malayali Being also grew with this. This concept spread beyond the boundaries of native states of Travancore, Kochi and Malabar and the need for a unified region was felt, In 1921, Kerala Pradesh Congress Committee (KPCC) was formed on the basis of language. It represented people from Travancore, Kochi, and Malabar.

The all-Kerala political meeting under Congress was summoned at Ottappalam in 1921. It was the first meeting in which representatives from Travancore, Kochi, and Malabar jointly participated. The desire for the Malayali Being was expressed in the book titled “Onnekal Kodi Malayalikal” by EMS Namboodiripad.

In April 1947, there was a United Kerala Meeting at Thrissur under the chairmanship of K. Kelappan. It passed a resolution demanding a United Kerala. On 1 July 1949, the State called “Thiru-Kochi” was formed combining Travancore and Kochi. It was an important step for the formation of United Kerala. The dream of a State of Kerala was fulfilled by the State Re-Organizing Committee under Sayed Fasal Ali. It recommended the formation of Kerala State uniting Travancore, Kochi, and Malabar. On 1 November 1956, Kerala State officially came into being.

You can Download The Demographic Structure of Indian Society Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two Sociology Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 2 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two Sociology Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 2 The Demographic Structure of Indian Society

The Demographic Structure of Indian Society Questions and Answers

Question 1.
The subject which studies things about birth, death, emigration, marriage, divorce etc. is called
a) Demography
b) Formal demography
c) Social Demography
d) Census
Answer:
Formal Demography

Question 2.
The first census in the world is the American census of the year. ?
Answer:
1790

Question 3.
Who is the social scientist that found that there are personal reasons as well as societal reasons behind every suicide?
Answer:
Emile Durkheim

Question 4.
The function of ……….. is analyzing the features involved in changes in the population.
Answer:
Demography

Question 5.
………. is the scientific study of population.
Answer:
Demography

Question 6.
Who wrote “An Essay on the Principle of Popula¬tion”?.
Answer:
Thomas Malthus

Question 7.
According to the 2011 Census, what is the gender ratio in India?
a) 934
b) 927
c) 933
d) 940
Answer:
940

Question 8.
When did the new Population Policy of India come into force?
Answer:
1, February 2000

Question 9.
Match the following:

A	B
Malthus	Rate of suicide
Kingsley Davies ‘	Geometrical growth
Emile Durkheim	Demographic Mutation Theory

Answer:

A	B
Malthus	Geometrical growth.
Kingsley Davies	Demographic Mutation Theory
Emile Durkheim	Rate of suicide

Question 10.
Which State of India has the highest literacy rate?
Answer:
Kerala

Question 11.
What is the difference in the gender ratio in India according to the 2011 Census?
(i) 16.7 %
(ii) 21,7 %
(iii) 24.8 %
(iv) 26.7 %
Answer:
16.7%

Question 12.
Who was the person who found that increase in population is the cause for poverty?
Answer:
Malthus

Question 13.
Who introduced the Demography Mutation Theory?
Answer:
Kingsley Davis

Question 14.
What is demography?
Answer:
Demography is the scientific study of populations. This word comes from Greek. ‘Demos’ means people. ‘Graphein’ means to write or describe. By combining these two words we get demography. It means describing people. It studies the trends and processes that affect populations.

Question 15.
What is the difference between formal demography and social demography?
Answer:
Formal demography is mainly concerned with measurements. It is concerned with things like birth, death, emigration, marriage, divorce, etc. Social demography stresses the social, economic and political aspects of the population.

The main function of formal demography is measuring and analyzing the components of population change. It stresses evolutionary analysis. For this, it uses mathematical and statistical methods. It is a method that helps in foreseeing changes in population growth and its structure.

Social demography or population studies study the reasons for changes in population and its structures and their results (repercussions). Social demographers believe that demographic processes are controlled by social processes and structures. People like social scientists, demographers also try to find out the social causes for demographic tendencies.

Question 16.
What are the two processes that helped in the growth of demography?
Answer:
pThe two processes are the formation of national states and the growth of statistical science. With the advent of the modern age, national states came up in Europe as important political organizations. With this, the role and responsibility of the modern nations began to increase. For example, administering public health, economic policies related to manufacturing and industry, tax, its collection, increasing incomes, urban management – all these needed the attention of the nation.

The growth of numerical (statistical) science was also important. As the areas of activity of nations increased, there was a need to have precise statistical data. Statistical data were needed in the case of population and economic systems with regard to their number, size and measure.

Question 17.
Who were the people that came out with demographic theories?
Answer:
Different theories about demography have been proposed by different scholars. The theories of Malthus, the Liberals, Marx and Kingsley David have been extensively discussed.

Question 18.
Explain the demographic theory of Malthus.
Answer:
One of the most popular theories on demography is that of Thomas Robert Malthus. He was an economist from England. In 1798 he published a book titled “An Essay on the Principle of Population”. In this book, he explained his demographic theory. His theory is pessimistic. Here are the important ideas – of his theory.

Malthus argued that population is increasing on a much faster rate than the increase in the means of livelihood (food, clothes, agricultural products etc). He pointed out that there is tremendous growth in population but there is no proportional growth in food production. Therefore mankind id destined to live in permanent poverty. The increase in population always exceeds the increase in agricultural production.
Population increases geometrically (in the order 2, 4, 8, 16.. 32, 64, 128, etc.). But food production increase is only arithmetical or parallel.

In short, increase in population will always keep food production behind. So Malthus tried to show that mankind will be faced with serious food shortages and ultimate ruin.

Malthus argued that the only way to make progress is by controlling population growth. He said there were two ways of controlling it One is moral restraints like marrying late, celibacy etc. The other is natural controls which inside wars, famine and diseases. Unfortunately, the power of mankind to limit population growth by moral control is very limited. Therefore Malthus believed that only natural controls will help in limiting population growth. He explained that natural controls are Nature’s way of solving the problem created by the geometrical growth of population and the arithmetical growth of good production.

The Theory of Malthus remained influential for long. ’ But theoreticians who showed that economic growth will be greater than population growth proved Malthus wrong. The experiences of European countries showed that the theory of Malthus is not right By the 2nd half of the 19th century there were changes in. the population growth. By the beginning of the 20th century, these changes were quite dramatic.

Birth rate reduced drastically. (The reason for this is the use of various means of birth control.) Contagious diseases were checked. (This was helped by progress in medical science.) There was tremendous increase in food production. (Improved technologies helped this.)

Although there was considerable increase in population, food production increased and the living standards became better. Thus the predictions of Malthus were proved wrong.

The theory of Malthus that the increase in population caused poverty was severely criticised by the Liberals and Marx. They argued that poverty and hunger are not the results of population growth, but the result of inequitable distribution of wealth and other resources. They showed that in an unjust society, the few wealthy live in great luxury whereas the majority of people live in, poverty.

Question 19.
What are the means of population control as suggested by Malthus?
Answer:

Question 20.
Explain the theory of Demographic Transition.
Answer:
Demographic Transition is another important theory in demography. This theory was presented in the 1940s by the American Social Scientist Kingsley Davis. His theory was an optimistic one. This theory argued that population growth is related to all-round economic development. He showed that each community or society follows its own development model in accordance with its population growth. The Theory of Demographic Transition says there are three basic stages in population growth.

In the first stage the society is not developed and the economic condition is backward. At this stage, both birth rate and death rate will be high. Therefore the growth in population will be small.

In the 2nd stage iff a transition stage. There is technological growth in the society and there is a big jump in the growth of population. The birth rate is high and the death rate is low. The growth in population will be very high.

The 3rd and last sage start when there is extensive industrialization. At this stage, birth rate and death rate will below.

It is during the transition between the 1st and 3d stage there is high growth of population or population explosion: When disease control, public health care, and nutritious food bring down the death rate, the birth rate remains high. There is thus population, explosion. The society will take some time to get adjusted to the new situation. The nature of procreation that was in existence during the time of poverty and high death rate will take some time to get used to the new situation of technological progress and high longevity.

This kind of transition took place in Europe at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th. This kind of transition (changing the nature of procreation to suit the new circumstances) is also followed by the developing nations. These nations are trying hard to reduce the birth rate as deaths are getting reduced. The transition stage is not yet complete in India. Although death rate is drastically reduced, it has not been possible to reduce birth rate drastically.

Question 21.
What is birth rate and death rate?
Answer:
Birth rate is the number of live births per 1,000 people per year in a place (a country, a State, a district or a geographical region).
Date rate is the number of deaths per 1000 of a population perversion a place.

Question 22.
What are the common indicators affecting population?
Answer:
There are many indicators that affect population.
a. Birth rate: Birth rate is the number of live births per 1,000 people per year in a place (a country, a State, a district or a geographical region).
b. Death rate: Date rate is the number of deaths per 1000 of a population per year in a place.
c. The rate of growth in population: The growth in population is the difference between birth rate and death rate. When this becomes 0 or very low, we can say that the population is stable. In some societies, there is negative growth rate. This is when birth rate is less than the death rate in those societies.
d. Fertility rate: This is the number of live births per 1000 women between the ages of 15 and 49 years. The ages 15 to 49 show the period when women can conceive.
e. Total fertility rate: This is an imaginary rate. It represents the number of children that would be born alive to a woman if she were to live to the end of her childbearing years (5-49) and bear children in accordance with age-specific fertility rates of the specified year.
f. Child death (mortality) rate: The under-5 mortality rate is the number of children who die by the age of five, per thousand live births per year.
g. Maternal mortality rate (MMR): This is the annual number of female deaths during delivery, per thousand deliveries. The high child and maternal death rates indicate poverty and backwardness.
h. Longevity: This is complex concept related to population. It shows the number of years an average person will live.
i. Gender Ratio: It shows how many females are there for thousand males in a region.
j. The Age Structure of the Population: It shows the number of persons in various age groups in proportion to the total population.
k. Dependency Ratio: Many persons cant-do any work either because they are children or they are too old. They have to depend on others. The dependency ratio is a measure showing the number of dependents (aged 0-14 and over the age of 65) to the total population (aged 15-64).

Question 23.
What are the common concepts and indicators of population?
Answer:
The common concepts and indicators of population are:

• Birthrate
• Death rate
• Growth rate
• Fertility rate
• Total fertility rate
• Maternal death rate
• Longevity
• Gender ratio
• Age Structure of the Population
• Dependency Ratio

Question 24.
Describe the size and growth of the Indian population
Answer:
After China, India has the largest population in the world. According to the 2011 Census, the population of India is 121 crores (1.21 billion). The growth rate in India is not always high. Between 1901 and 1951, the annual rate of growth never exceeded 1.33%. This is a moderate growth. In fact, the growth rate between 1911 and 1921 was drastically reduced to the negative growth of -0.03%. In short, the growth until 1921 was very slow. There are some reasons for it. In 1918-19 there was an epidemic which kept population under check. In the epidemic 12.5 lakh people, i.e. 5% of the total population, died. Killer diseases like plague and malaria and famine killed lakhs of people.

During the post-independent period, population growth increased considerably. In the period 1961-1981, it went up to 2.2%. After that, even though our growth rate was reduced, India still continues to be one of the most highly populated countries of the world. The , following table gives the population and the growth rate during the various census years.

Indian Population1901-2011

Question 25.
What are the reasons for the decreased death rate. after 1921?
Answer:
There were two reasons that were responsible for the reduced rate after 1921. One is the control over famines and the other i.sthe control of epidemics. Of these two, the second one is more important. The worst killers of the past were different kinds of fever, plague, smallpox, malaria and cholera. The plague in the 1918-19 period killed 12.5 lakh people, 5% of the total population. It was known as Spanish Plague and it was a global killer. Progress in the treatment of this kind of epidemics, preventive vaccinations, improved hygiene and so on helped in the prevention of these killer diseases.

However, even now diseases like malaria, tuberculosis, dysentery, bloody diarrhoea and so on are killing people. But the death rate is not as high as before. In 1994, there was a plague in Surat. In 2006, diseases like dengue fever and chikungunya were reported from different parts of the country. There were also different kinds of bird flu in the country not long ago. Death rate was reduced because of effective control of famines. Famines caused heavy loss of life in the past. With their control deaths are reduced.

Question 26.
Explain the Age Structure of the Indian population.
Answer:
The majority of Indians are young. Thus India has a youthful population. The average age of India is less compared to many other countries. In 1971 persons below 15 were 42%. From this, in 2001, it was reduced to 34%.

The percentage persons between 15 and 60 increased from 53 to 59. People above 60 increased from 5 to 7% during the period 1971-2001.
AGE STRUCTURE: Depending on age, people are divided into children, adults and senior citizens (old people). Children 0-14; Adults 15-60; Above 60 senior citizens.

Question 27.
There are regional variations in the age structure. Clarify.
Answer:
There are wide variations in regional age structures. States like Kerala have begun to achieve an age- structure that is similar to the one in developed countries. But in Uttar Pradesh, the picture is quite different. There the ratio of young people is more and that of the old people is less. When we look at India as a whole, the age ratio is in between these two extremes, because India has States like Kerala and also like Uttar Pradesh.

Question 28.
Describe the features of gender ratio in India,
Answer:
In the structure of population, gender ratio has an important place. It shows the gender equilibrium. Gender ratio means how many women are there for 1000 males. Historically gender ratio favoured women. It means there were more women than men. But for almost a century the gender ratio shows there are more men than women.

At the start of the 19th century, the gender ratio was 972: 1000. It means 972 women for 1000 men. In the 21^st century, the ratio is 933:1000.
The reduction in the number of women has been going on for the last 4 decades. This is a matter for great concern. In 1961 it was 941: 1000; in 2011, it is 940 : 1000.

Question 29.
Describe the apprehensive change in the gender ratio of children.
Answer:
A fact that shocked demographers, policymakers, social workers and even ordinary citizens is the drastic reduction in the gender ratio of children. It was from 1961 that gender ratio related to age was calculated. The ratio of children aged up to 6 is called child gender ratio. This used to be higher in the past, but unfortunately, it has been seriously decreasing. In the 1991-2001 period, the female-male ratio was 933:1000, which was the highest. It had increased by 6 points from the previous 927:1000. At the same time, child gender ratio went down to 927 from 945, showing a decrease of 18 points. Thus for the first time, the child gender ratio became lower than the common gender ratio.

The decrease in the child gender ratio in some States is cause for greater concern. In 6 States and in the Centrally Administered Regions, the child gender ratio is even lower than 90Q girls to 1000 boys. Punjab is the worst in this case. There it is 798:1000. It is the only state that is below 800 females for 1000 males. Just behind Punjab, there are Haryana, Chhatisgarh, Delhi, Gujarat and Himachal Pradesh.

In Uttaranchal, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra, the ratio is less than 925. In Madhya Pradesh, Goa, Jammu-Kashmir, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Orissa, the ratio is above the national average of 914, but it is below 950.

The best ratio is in Kerala. But even here things are not so fine, as the ratio is just 964. Mizoram has the highest ratio in India. There it is 971:1000. Demographers and social scientist point out many reasons for the decrease in the gender ratio, with less women and more men. The most important of them are reasons of health and the attitude of the society towards females.

Question 30.
What are the main reasons for the decrease in the female-male (gender) ratio in India?
Answer;
Demographers and social scientist point out many reasons for the decrease in the gender ratio, with less women and more men. The most important of them are reasons of health and the attitude of the society towards females.

Women have greater health problems than men because of conception and childbirth. In some cases, women die during delivery. The question whether this is the cause for the inequality in gender ratio has much relevance. In the past deaths during or after delivery were common. But with the progress in medical science, such deaths are reduced to a minimum. Maternal death rate has been seriously reduced because of nutritious food, education, awareness, improved medical facilities and transport and communication. So it would e difficult to support the argument that maternal deaths during delivery are a major cause for the unequal gender ratio.
The other reason is said to be the behaviour and attitude of the society to women.

In some societies, birth of females is considered a curse and a burden. In such societies, there are many female foeticides and female infanticides. During pregnancy, through scanning, it is determined whether the child is male or female. If the foetus is female, then abortion is done. This is female foeticide. Some times in some superstitious societies female children are killed (female infanticide) even after their births because of certain cultural and religious superstitions. This points to a serious social issue.

There are evidence that even now this kind of heinous acts are done in India. Using technology like sonograms (ultra-sound echo) the gender of the child is determined before birth, and if it is proved to be female, abortion is done. In all the hospitals we see notices against the determination of child sex using this technology. But unscrupulous gynaecologists take bribes and let the parents know the sex of the unborn child.

Question 31.
What are the uses of literacy?
Answer:

• It empowers people.
• It helps people to choose their jobs.
• It helps in the social and cultural prosperity of the society.

Question 32.
In a table, show the growth in India’s literacy rate.
Answer:
LITERACY RATE IN INDIA

Question 33.
Explain the inequality in literacy fate between male and female.
Answer:
Literacy rate gets different depending on the gender, region and social communities. Female literacy rate is far below male literacy rate. According to the 2011 census, male-female gap in literacy rate is 16.7. Depending on the social communities also, there will be difference in the female literacy rate. Among the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, female literacy rate is very low.

Regional differences also cause disparity in the female literacy rate. States like Kerala are having 100% literacy rate or are very close to it. Kerala has the best literacy rate, both male and female. But States like Bihar are far behind in literacy rate, especially that of female.

The disparities in literacy are very significant. It will create generation gap very acute. Illiterate parents may not be very keen on giving their children higher education. They may not have the circumstances for it. Naturally, then, the present inequality will continue.

Question 34.
The majority of Indians live in villages. Comment.
Answer:
It is very true that the majority of Indians live in villages. According to the 2011 census, 69% of Indians live in villages. Only 31% live in cities and towns. But the urban population is steadily increasing. At the start of the 20th century, the urban population was 11%. By the beginning of the 2181 century, it went up to 28%. Thus in one century, the urban population increased 214 times. The urban population is increasing because of the modem development plans.

Question 35.
The main reason for the increase in urban population is the migration of people from villages to urban areas (cities and towns). How did urban life become more attractive? Why do the rural population migrate to urban centres?
Answer:
Mass media and television played a big role in making rural people migrate to urban centres. The glittering lifestyle and the luxuries that consumer culture has brought in are constantly shown on television and this captivates the rural people. Today even in the remotest villages, people know how the city people live and their high living standards with all sorts of amenities and luxuries. This has tempted the villagers to try their luck in cities.

The gap between the urban and rural people is slowly getting bridged. Even in the past, villages were not inaccessible to market forces. They tried to establish and maintain trade relations with villages to sell their goods. With the growth of the media, especially the visual media, market forces and villages got closer. Now villages also have become part of the consumer culture. Villages are very active in market activities.

Villagers are tempted to move into cities and towns because of their familiarity with the glittery lifestyle available there. Media have been largely responsible for awakening this desire in the rural people.

Greater employment opportunities in towns and cities also attracted people towards them. With urbanization in top gear, the villagers were attracted to the magnetic field of the cities and towns. People who were unemployed in the, villages or those who had only very little work moved into cities and towns

Question 36.
Describe the ill effects (disadvantages) of migration
Answer:
movement of rural people into urban centres quickened the destruction of common properties like ponds, forests and grasslands. These were the sources of the means of livelihood of poor villagers. Those who did not have much land managed to exist by fishing, collecting things from forests and grazing their cattle. With the mass movement of people to urban centres, there was a change everywhere.

Construction work destroyed the grassy plains and the ponds became dry. Forests were cleared either for cultivation or for some other kind of industrialization. Villagers were forced to buy many things which they used to get free. For example, from the public ponds, they could catch fish, from forests they could get firewood and other things, and from the grasslands, they got grass for their cattle. Now nothing was free and people were forced by buy things which were free until now. Thus villagers began to suffer more. Since cash income in hard to come by in villages, their problems got multiplied.

Question 37.
What were the reasons for the migration to cities by villagers?
Answer:

• Influence of the media, especially television.
• Love for consumerist culture.
• Finding better life with good amenities and luxuries.
• Opportunity to look for jobs.
• The unfamiliarity in the cities. Since people don’t know you much, you can do any job and get money. But in villages, one does not like to do jobs which are considered below one’s status.

Question 38.
Describe the population policy of India.
Answer:
Population policy is a very important matter in a country. It is related to the health, prosperity and development of the nation. Population and development are mutually related. For the development of a country, an energetic population is necessary. At the same time, overpopulation can do a lot of harm to development. This problem of overpopulation is felt by the developing nations. The problem of overpopulation was recognized by India at an early stage. In 1952 itself, India declared a population policy.

The population policy of the Indian Government stressed family planning. For this, a Family Planning Board and a Family Planning Department were established. Five Year Plans also gave due importance to family planning. The population policy of India was based on the National Family Planning Programme. The aims of this Programme were:

• Control the rate of growth of the population in a way desirable to the society.
• Encourage various birth control methods and thus reduce the growth rate.
• Improve public health.
• Create awareness in people about the problems of overpopulation and matters related to health.

Question 39.
Describe the gains India made in population control.
Answer:
In the last 6 decades, India has made many gains in the field of population control. They can be summarised thus:

• Crude birth rate reduced to 24.1 in 2004 from 40.8 in 1951.
• Child mortality rate was reduced to 58 per thousand in 2004, from 146 in 1951.
• Welfare of partners increased 4 times from 10.4% in 1971 to 44% in 1998.
• Longevity increased from 37 years of age to 62.
• Awareness was created for the need and methods of family planning.
• Fertility rate became half, from 6.0 in 1951 to 3.0 in 2004.

You can Download Introducing Indian Society Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two Sociology Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 1 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two Sociology Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 1 Introducing Indian Society

Introducing Indian Society Questions and Answers

Question 1.
The ability to know how others look at us and the ability to look at ourselves from outside is called …..
Answer:
Reflexivity

Question 2.
Who is the social scientist that studied the relation between private difficulties and social problems?
Answer:
C. Ret Mills

Question 3.
The subject that studies about Society is called
Answer:
Sociology

Question 4.
…………. marks the place or position of a person in the society.
Answer:
Social map

Question 5.
Match the following.

A	B
C, Wright Mills	Generation Gap
Social Map	Private difficulties and social problems
Social Problem	Language, Class, Caste, etc.

Answer:

A	B
C, Wright Mills	Private difficulties and social problems
Social Map	Language, Class, Caste etc.
Social Problem	Generation Gap

Question 6.
Write the following under two columns, one headed Personal Difficulties and the other Social Problems. Generation Gap, Anxiety, Racism, Unemployment, Communal feeling, Tension, dissatisfaction with elders, gender inequalities)

Answer:

Personal Difficulties	Social Problems
Anxiety	Generation Gap
Tension	Racism
Dissatisfaction with elders	Unemployment, Communal feeling, Gender inequalities

Question 7.
What is Sociology? What is the importance of studying Sociology?
Answer:
Sociology studies about society. For students of Sociology, earlier knowledge about society can be an advantage or disadvantage at the same time. The advantage is that students will not be afraid of Sociology. They will not feel that Sociology is a difficult subject to study. But, at the same time, this prior information might prove a problem in the study of Sociology. That is one important disadvantage. To study Sociology we must temporarily suspend our earlier knowledge about it. In fact, in the beginning of the study of Sociology, importance is given to let the students suspend their earlier knowledge.

Question 8.
What is Sociological perspective (viewpoint)?
Answer:
Sociology teaches us to look at the world from different perspectives (sides). It is not only our perspectives that are important, but also the perspectives of others. From each viewpoint, we see only a part of the whole. In short with just one perspective we will not get a full picture of the world.

When we compare the different views of people about the world, we get a reasonable picture of the entire thing. Each viewpoint of others tells us what is hidden from our own viewpoint.

Question 9.
What is reflexivity?
Answer:
Sociology tells us how others are looking at us. It also teaches us to look at ourselves from outside. This is called self-reflexivity or simply reflexivity.

Question 10.
How is a social map formed?
Answer:
When we understand the Indian society and its structure, we get a social map. We will ou, selves be able to determine our place in it. A social map is as useful as a geographical map. A social map helps us to see ourselves in relation to others and fix our position. For example, imagine that we are living in Arunachal Pradesh. If we look into the Indian geographical map we will know that our State is in the North-East Region. When we compare it with big States like UP, MP, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan we will know that our State is small.

But when we compare it with small states like Manipur, Goa, Haryana, and Punjab we will know our State is comparatively bigger. If you are looking at a map showing the physical features, you will be able to compare Arunachal Pradesh with other States. It will tell us that whether it is a hilly area or a forest area and in what natural resources it is rich. A geographical map determines the place and nature of our area. But a social map tells us our position in the society. Our social group, language, race, religion, race, and tribe – all these will be included in the social map.

Question 11.
Sociology does not merely help you to determine your position or the positions of others in the different social groups. It does much more than that. Explain.
Answer:
C. Wright Mills, an American Social Scientist tells us that Sociology does another important thing. He says that Sociology helps us in finding out the relations between private difficulties and social problems. By private difficulties Mills means personal worries, anxieties, and problems that all people have. For example, you may be dissatisfied with the treatment you get at home from your elders, brothers, and sisters.

You may be dissatisfied with the treatment you get from your friends. You may be worried about future or about the job that you are going to get. There might be anxieties and tensions that wound your self-respect or your confidence. But all these are personal problems. They become meaningful and important when looked from your personal perspective. But social problems are entirely different from personal ones. They are related to big groups. They are not particular to a person.

Question 12.
Differentiate between personal problems and social problems.
Answer:

Personal Problems	Social Problems
Dissatisfaction with the behavior of elders or others.	Generation Gap
Anxiety about the future. Worry about what kind of job you might be getting.	Unemployment, Changes in the structure of jobs.
Occasions that hurt your self-respect or confidence.	Communal feeling, Racism
Circumstances that create tensions or worries.	Gender inequalities

Students can Download Chapter 10 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes Notes, Plus Two Chemistry Notes helps you to revise the complete Kerala State Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two Chemistry Notes Chapter 10 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes

Haloalkanes and haloarenes are fomed by the replacement of H atom(s) in a hydrocarbon by halogen atom(s).
Haloalkanes – halogen attached to sp³ C.
Haloarenes – halogen linked to sp² C.

Classification
1. Based on the number of halogen atoms:
Mono, di or polyhalogens according to number of halogen atoms.

2. Compounds Containing sp³ C-Xbond:
(a) Alkyl halide or Haloalkanes (R – X):
General formula C_nH_2n+1X.
They are again classified into primary (1°) secondary. (2°) or tertary (3°).

(b) Allylic Halides:
The halogen bonded carbon atom (sp³) is bonded to (C=C)

(c) Benzylic Halides:
halogen atom is bonded to an sp³ hybridised carbon atom next to an a aromatic ring.

3. Compounds Containing sp2 C-X Bond:
(a) Vinylic Halides:
halogen atom is bonded to an sp²– hybridised carbon atom of C=C.

(b) Aryl Halides:
Halogen atom is bonded to sp²– C atom of an aromatic ring. e.g. chlorobenzene.

Nomenclature
Common name – Alkyl halides and arylhalides. IUPAC – Haloalkane and haloarene
e.g. CH₃ – CH₂ – CH₂ – Br n-Propyl bromide
1 – Bromopropane (IUPAC) Isobutyl chloride
1 – Chloro – 2 – methylpropane

Nature of C -X Bond
Since the halogen atom is more electronegative than C, the C – X bond of alkylhalide is polarised.

The C – X bond length increases from C – F to C – I.

Methods of Preparation
1. From Alcohols:
The -OH group of an alcohol is replaced by halogen on reaction with halogen acids (HX), PX₃, PCl₅, SOCl_2, etc.

3R – OH + PX₃ H → 3R – X + H₃PO₃ (X = Cl, Br)
R – OH + PCl₅ → R – Cl + POCl₃ + HCl

R – OH + SOCl₂ → R – Cl + SO₂ + HCl
Thionyl chloride (SOCl₂) is preferred because the other two products are escapable gases. Hence the reaction gives pure alkyl halides.

2. From Hydrocarbons:
(a) Free RadicalHalogenation:
Free radical chlorination or bromination of alkanes gives mixture of isomers.

(b) Electrophilic Substitution:
Aryl Chlroides and bromides easily prepared by electrophilic substitution of arenes.

(c) Sandmayer’s Reaction:
When a primary aromatic amine, dissolved or suspended in cold aqueous mineral acid, is treated with sodium nitrite, a diazonium salt is formed.

Mixing the solution of freshly prepared diazonium salt with cuprous chloride (Cu₂Cl₂) or cuprous bromide (Cu₂ Br₂) results in the replacement of the diazo group by -Cl or -Br.

Aryl iodide is prepared by shaking the diazonium salt with potassium iodide.

(d) From Alkanes:
Addition of hydrogen halides to an alkene gives alkyl halide. The addition is according to Markovnikov’s rule.

3. Halogen Exchange:
Finkelstein Reaction: Alkyl iodides are prepared by the reaction of alkyl chlorides/bromides with Nal in dry acetone.
R – X + Nal → R – I + NaX (X = Cl, Br)
Swarts Reaction:
Alkyl fluorides are prepared by heating an alkyl chloride/bromide in the presence of a metallic fluoride such as AgF, Hg₂F₂, CoF₂ or SbF₃.
R – Br + AgF → R – F + AgBr.

Physical Properties
Melting and Boiling Points : Lower members are gases and higher members are liquid or solids. Intermolecular forces of attraction are stronger in the halogen derivatives. Hence bp of chlorides, bromides and iodides are higherthan that of parent hydrocarbon.

The boiling points of alkyl halides decrease in the order Rl > RBr > RCI > RF. The bp of isomeric haloalkanes decrease with increase in branching. The bp of p-isomeric dihalobenzenes are higher than that of o- and m- isomers.

Solubility:
Haloalkanes are only very slightly soluble in water. But they, are soluble in organic solvents.

Chemical Reactions
a. Reactions of Haloalkanes: divided into three:

1. Nucleophilic substitution
2. Elimination reaction
3. Reaction with metals

1. Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction:
The halogen atom is substituted by other nucleophiles.

Nucleophilic substitution of alkyl halides:
R – X + \(\overline{\mathrm{Nu}}\) → R – NU + \(\bar{x}\)
Ambiden nucleophiles:
Groups possessing two nucleophilic centres, e.g. – CN^–, – ONO^–

Mechanism:
(a) Substitution Nucleophilic Bimolecular (S_N2):
Reaction between R – X and Nu follows second order kinetics, i.e., rate depends upon the concentration of both the reactants. Consider the reaction of CH₃ – Cl & OH^–

The incoming nucleophilic interacts with alkyl halide causing the C-X bond to break while forming a new C-OH bond. After the completion of reaction, the configuration of the carbon atom inverts. This process is called inversion of configuration.

The breaking and forming of bond take place simultaneously in a single step and no intermediate is formed. But a transition state is formed.

3° alkyl halides are the least reactive because bulky groups hinder the approaching of nucleophile. Order of reactivity: 1° > 2° > 3° halides.

(b) Substitution nucleophilic unimolecular (S_N1):
Reaction between RX and Nu follows first order kinetics, i.e., rate depends the concentration of only one reactant. It occurs in two steps. In step I, the C – X band undergos slow.cleavage to produce a carbocation and in step II the carbocation is attacked by nucleophile, e.g.

There is no inversion of configuration. 3° carbocation are more stable than 2° and 1 °. Hence the order of reactivity is 3° > 2°> 10 halides.

Allylic and benzylic halides show high reactivity towards S_N1 reaction because the carbocation formed gets stabilised through resonance.

(c) Stereo Chemical Aspects of Nucleophilic Substitution:
S_N2 reaction proceeds with complete stereo-chemical inversion while a S_N1 reaction proceeds with racemisation.

Some Basic Concepts About Stereochemistry:
(i) Optical Activity:
Ability of certain compounds to rotate plane polarised light either to right or left. Such compounds are called optically active compounds. Dextorotary, d-form or (+)-compound which rotate plane polarised light to the right (clockwise direction).

Laevo rotatory, l-form or (-)- compound which rotate plane polarised light to the right (anticlockwise direction).

The (+) and (-) isomers of a compound are called optical isomers and the phenomenon is termed as optical isomerism.

(ii) Molecular assymmetry:
If all the atoms/substituents attached to the carbon atom are different, the carbon atom is called assymnietric carbon or stereocentre. The assymmetry of the molecule is responsible for optical activity.

Chirality:
Objects which are non-super impossable on their mirror image are said to be chiral and this property is known as chirality. The objects which are super impossible mirror images are called achiral.

Enantiomers:
Stereo isomers related to each other as non-super impossible mirror images of each other and which rotate the plane polarised light equally but in opposite directions.

They have identical physical properties. They only differ with respect to the rotation of plane polarised light. If one of the enantiomers is dextrorotary, the other will be laevo rotatory.

Racemic misture-mixture containing two enantiomers in equal proportions. It has zero optical rotation, i.e., optically inactive.

Racemisation-process of conversion of enantiomer into racemic mixture. A racemic mixture is represented by prefixing dl or (±) before the name.

(iii) Retention of configuration:
preservation of integrity of the spatial arrangement of bonds to an asymmetric centre during a chemical reaction or transformation. e.g. XCabc is converted into YCabc

(iv) Inversion, Retension and Racermisation

Retention of configuration – Compound A’only. Inversion of configuration – Compound ‘B’only. Racemisation – 50:50 mixture (A+B).

S_N2 & S_N1 Reactions of Optically Active Alkyl Halides: The product formed as a result of S_N2 mechanism has the inverted configuration as compared to the reactant because the Nu attaches itself on the side opposite to the one where the halogen atom is present. S_N1 reactions are accompanied by racemisation due to planar structure of carbocation.

2. Elimination Reactions:
When a haloalkanes with β – H atom is heated with alcoholic solution of KOH, there is elimination of H from β – C and a halogen atom from the α – C. Since β – H atom is involved in elimination, it is called β – elimination.

Saytzeff Rule or (Zaitsev Rule):
In dehydrohalogenation reactions, the preferred product is that alkene which has the greater number of alkyl groups attached to the doubfy bonded carbon atoms. i.e., the more substituted alkene is the major product.

3. Reaction with Metals:
Alkyl halides react with certain metals, organo-metallic compounds are formed. Alkyl halides react with Mg in presence of dry ether to form alkyl magnesium halide (Grignard reagent).

Grignard reagents react with water to form hydrocarbons.
R – MgX + H₂O → R – H + Mg(OH)X.

Wurtz Reaction:
Alkyl halide react with sodium in dry ether give hydrocarbons with even number of carbon atoms, i.e., double the number of carbon atoms present in the halide.
2R – X + 2Na R → R + 2 NaX

b. Reactions of Haloarenes:
Aryl halides are extremely less reactive towards SN reactions due to the following reasons:
(i) Resonance effect:

C-Cl bond acquires a partial double bond character. Hence, cleavage of C – X bond is difficult.

(ii) Difference in Hybridisation of C in C – X bond:

Haloalkane	Haloarenes
C sp3 hybridised	C sp2 hybridised
less s-character	more s-character
C-X bond weaker	C-X bond stronger

(iii) Instability of phenyl cation: the phenyl cation formed as a result of self-ionisation will not be stabilised by resonance.

(iv) Steric repulsion: it is less likely for the electron rich nucleophile to approach electron rich arenes.
Replacement by Hydroxyl Group:

The presence of an electron-withdrawing group (-NO₂) at

1. Electrophilic Substitution Reactions: Halogen atoms are slightly deactivating (-I effect) and are o, p- directing (+R effect).
(i) Halogenation:

(ii) Nitration:

(iii) Sulphonation:

(iv) Friedel-Crafts Alkylation:

(v) Friedel-Crafts Acylation:

3. Reaction with Metals:
Wurtz – Fittig Reation:
A mixture of an alkyl halide and aryl halide gives an alkylarene when treated with sodium in dry ether.

Fittig Reaction:
Aryl halides when treated with sodium in dry ether, diaryls are formed in which the aryl groups are joined together.

Polyhalogen Compounds
(1) Dichloromethane (Methylene Chloride), CH₂Cl₂:
Used as a solvent, as a paint remover, as propellent in aerosols and in manufacture of drugs. It is harmful to human central nervous system. It causes dizziness, nausea, direct contact with the eyes can burn the cornea.

(2) Trichloromethane (Chloroform), CHCl₃:
Employed as a solvent for fats, alkaloids. It was once used as general anaesthetic. Inhaling it depresses central nervous system. It is slowly oxidised by air in presence of light to form an extremely poisonous gas, carbonyl chloride known as phosgene. Hence it is stored in dark coloured bottles completely filled so that air is kept out.

(3) Tniodomethane (Iodoform), CHl₃:
Used as antiseptic in earlier times. The antiseptic properties is due to liberation of free iodine.

(4) Tetrachloromethane (Carbond Tetrachloride), CCl₄:
Used as a solvent, as cleaning fluid, as spot remover, as fire extinguisher. Adverse effects:vomitting, dizziness, permanent damage to nerve cells, stupor, coma, liver cancer, skin cancer, eye diseases, damage to immune system.

(5) Freons:
The chloroflurocarbon compounds of methane and ethane are collectively known as freons. Freon 12 (CCl₂Fl₂) is one of the most common freons in industrial use. It causes ozone depletion.

(6) DDT – Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane:
First chlorinated organic insecticides. It is effective against mosquito, lice. The chemical stability of DDT and its fat solubility are the main problems. DDT is not metabolised very rapidly by animals; instead, it is deposited and stored in the fatty tissues.

You can Download Colonialism and the Countryside Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 10 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 10 Colonialism and the Countryside (Exploring Official Archives)

Question 1.
Who introduced the Zamindari system?
Answer:
Lord Cornwallis

Question 2.
Who are the jotedars?
Answer:
The rich farmers

Question 3.
Who practised shifting agriculture?
Answer:
Pahariyas

Question 4.
Which revolt was led by Sindhu and Kanu?
Answer:
Santhal Revolt

Question 5.
Where did the Deccan revolt take place?
Answer:
Bombay

Question 6.
Explain the relevance of the Bardwan Auction. What was the trick in it?
Answer:
In 1797 in Bardwan (today’s Bardaman in Bengal) there was an auction. It was a big public event. The Raja of Bardwan had a lot of estates and he sold them in auction. According to the permanent settlement, the zamindars were to give a fixed amount to the East India Company as land tax. The condition was that if the zamindars failed to pay the tax in time, their lands would be confiscated and sold in auction. The Raja of Bardwan had not paid the land taxes for his properties and there were huge unpaid amounts. It was in this condition that his estates were auctioned.

Many people took part in the auction. The estates were sold to the highest bidders. Soon the collector discovered a foul play in the auction. Most of the people who acquired the estates in the auction were
agents or servants of the Raja. They got these estates as his binamis. 95% of the sales in the action proved to be part of this foul play. Although the Raja sold his estates in public auction, he got back their control using his agents.

Question 7.
What were the reasons for bringing the Permanent Settlement? What changes did it bring in the villages?
Answer:
After establishing their authority in Bengal, the British tried to bring about a series of land tax systems there. Their aim was to make maximum profit. But all the land tax systems the British brought were failures. The Company failed to get a permanent income. In these circumstances the officials of the Company began to think of a new tax system.

In the 1970s, the village economic condition was in a crisis. Agricultural products decreased fearfully. Villagers faced famine. To save the financial system in Bengal from utter min, the officials of the Company were forced to do something. At the same time they had to increase the revenues of the government. They thought that both these aims could be achieved by encouraging people to invest more in agriculture. With this in mind, they formulated the Permanent Settlement. They thought by this, a fixed amount would flow into treasury and the investors would make good profit from the land. This is how they thought: The land tax is fixed. It won’t increase in the future. The investment in agriculture would save the financial situation in Bengal.

They thought the Permanent Settlement would help the small scale farmers and also landowners. They thought the landowners would invest in the land and they would be loyal to the Company.

The Company faced a big challenge in implementing the Permanent Settlement. They wanted people who would increase the agricultural products and pay the tax regularly to the government. In other words, the Company Officials did not know with whom they should make the Permanent Settlement. After having long discussions with the officials, Lord Cornwallis solved the problems and in 1793 it was executed.

The Permanent Settlement was done with the Rajas and Talukdars in Bengal. They were considered as Zamindars. The Zamindars were to give a fixed amount as tax to the government each year. As per villages. The places from they collected taxes were called zamindaris, The Zamindar had the responsibility of giving taxes in lump sum.

The farmers in the estates became the vassals of the zamindars. Zamindars collected taxes from the villagers. After giving the tax to the government, they kept the rest of the money. This was their income. The Zamindar had to make regular payments. If anybody failed, his zamindaris would be taken away from him.

Question 8.
Why did the Zamindars fail to collect the taxes? Explain.
Answer:
Firstly, the rate of the tax fixed by the Company was very high. Company had fixed the rates, thinking of the future losses. Since the company gets only a fixed amount, any profit made by the Zamindar will remain with him. These profits would come from increased production and increased prices. The Company argued that zamindars would make huge profits in the future and so the initial high tax should not prove difficult for them.

Secondly, the Company fixed these high taxes in the 1790s. It was a time of economic depression. The price of agricultural products came down drastically. Naturally the Zamindars could not pay taxes to the government, as they failed to get it from the farmers.

Thirdly, the Zamindars had to give a fixed amount to the Company. Whether the crops were good or bad, the amount had to be paid. There was the strict condition for this payment. If the payment was not received before sunset on the last day for payment, the zamindaris would be auctioned. This way many zamindars lost their zamindaris.

Fourthly, the Permanent Settlement reduced the authority of the Zamindars and controlled their autonomous state. Zamindars had to send their soldiers away. Zamindars were also denied the right to charge ‘customs’. Their ‘kacheris’ (courts) came under the authority of the Collector appointed by the Company. They also lost the power to maintain law and order in their areas. All this adversely affected them and their power to collect taxes from the farmers was reduced.

Question 9.
Zamindars made .some plans to save their zamindaris from being lost by auctions. Evaluate this statement.
Answer:
Zamindars used a technique called ‘false sale’. It was a technique they used in the transfer and sale of the zamindaris. For example, a Raja in Bardwan, transferred some of his zamidaris to his mother. Zamindaris in the name of women were not to be confiscated for auction.

Sometimes zamindars used their agents when their zamindaris were auctioned. When their zamindaris were auctioned because of non-payment of taxes in time, the agents of the zamindar took part in the auction and offered the highest bids winning the zamindaris. But they would not pay. Again the zamindaris would be offered for auction. The Zamindars would again send their agents and this way the process would go on endlessly. The government and the others taking part in the auction would be tired at the end, and the government will be forced to give the lands back to the original zamindar for a small price. Such false auctions were rampant.

Zamindars also used force to prevent the transfer of their lands. If outsiders tried to get into the zamindaris, the zamindars would use goondas to prevent them from occupying the land. Sometimes farmers themselves prevented outsiders from entering their land. There were many farmers who were loyal to their zamindars. They considered themselves as the loyal subjects of the zamindar. The sale of the land by auction would wound their self-respect and so they tried to prevent outsiders from coming there by using all kinds of means.

Question 10.
What are the reasons for the rise of Jotedars? What was their approach to the zamindars?
Answer:
At the end of the 18th century, the zamindars faced a lot of crises. But at this time the jotedars (a group of rich peasantry) were improving their situation. Francis Buchanan made a survey in the Dinajpur district of North Bengal. In his report, he gives a good description of these jotedars. In different places they were called by different names like howladar and mandal. Soon they became important people in the villages of Bengal.

By the start of the 19th century, jotedars became owners of extensive lands. Thousands of acres of land were occupied by them.

Local trade, giving money on interest, etc. were controlled by jotedars. Thus they were able to exercise control over the poor village peasants.

In the lands of jotedars, share cropping was the practice. Those who did the cultivation in these lands were called ‘adhiyar’. Jotedars often took more than
half of the total harvest as their share.

Question 11.
What is known as the 5th report? Explain its contents and importance.
Answer:
In 1813, a report about the administration and working of the East India Company was submitted to the British Parliament. This is called the 5th Report. Before this, 4 such reports were submitted to the Parliament. The 5th report had 1000 pages. More than 800 pages were appendixes. The report contained the following:

• Complaints of the farmers and zamindars.
• Reports of the district collectors.
• Statements of tax income.
• Reports by officials about the revenue and judicial affairs in Bengal and Madras.

Question 12.
The fight between Pahariyas and Santhals is called the fight between hoe and plough. Why?
Answer:
In the colonial period agricultural areas often exceeded their traditional boundaries. They spread into grazing lands and Rajmahal hills and forests. The spread of the agricultural area caused different types of conflicts. The most important of them was between Pahariyas and Santhals – hoes and ploughs. Hoes represent the Pahariyas as they used hoes for their shifting cultivation. Ploughs represent the Santhals.

Question 13.
Who was Francis Buchanan? What did he feel about the Rajmahal hills?
Answer:
At the beginning of the 19th century, Francis Buchanan travelled through the hills of Rajmahal. He realized that it was difficult to penetrate them. Only very few travellers dared to travel through those dangerous areas. Wherever he went, the people treated him in a hostile manner. They were suspicious of the officials of the government.

Question 14.
Who were Pahariyas? What is special about their cultivation style?
Answer:
In official documents, people who inhabited the highlands are called pahariyas. The journal of Buchanan gives some interesting accounts of the Pahariyas. His journal is in the form of a diary. The places he saw, the people he met, their customs, etc. are recorded in his journal. But he has not written about their origin or history. Therefore to recreate the history of Pahariyas, historians had to rely on the revenue records of the 18th century. They give much information about Pahariyas.

Pahariyas lived on the Rajmahal hills. For their livelihood they depended on the forest. They got their food from the forest. They also did shifting cultivation. They cleared small tracts in the forest and dug the ground with their hoes, planting pulses and com. After using the tracts for some time they left them fallow to restore their fertility and moved to another place.

For food, the Pahariyas collected a kind of flowers called ‘mahua’ from forests. They also collected cocoons of silkworms and resin for sale. They collected wood to make charcoal. They grazed their animals in the grasslands of the forests. Thus they did many things connected with the forest.

They lived in huts made among tamarind groves. They rested in the shade of trees. They considered the entire area their own. Their being and life depended on these forests.

Question 15.
Pahariyas strongly objected to the trespassing of their areas by others. Justify this statement.
Answer:
Pahariyas strongly objected to the trespassing of their areas by others. They were led by “Moopans”. Moopans controlled them and settled their quarrels. It was the Moopans that led the fights against other tribal people and the inhabitants of the plains. During famine, Pahariyas trespassed into the plains. It was in the plains that the regular farmers lived. Pahariyas attacked the people in the plain not only to get food but also to establish their supremacy over them. To be spared of attacks by Pahariyas, zamindars paid regular tributes (money) to the Moopans. Similarly, traders also paid some money to the Pahariya Moopans to get permission to travel through the tunnels in areas in their control. The Moopans gave the traders protection in return. The Moopans ensured that the goods of the traders were not looted by anyone.

Question 16.
Who were Santhals? What made them turn to agriculture?
Answer:
Santhals were in fact wandering tribal groups. They reached Bengal in the 1780s. The Zamindars of Bengal used their services to clear the forests and expand agriculture. British officials also used Santhals. The British tried to tame the Pahariyas and make them settled farmers. When they failed in their efforts, they sought the help of Santhals to tame the Pahariyas. The British invited the Santhals to live on the Rajmahal hills. Santhals were not like. Pahariyas, who were not ready to cut down trees and use the plough. But Santhals cleared forests and zealously ploughed the land.

The British gave a lot of land to the Santhals in the valleys of Rajmahal hills. They encouraged them to settle there. By 1832, this area began to-be called ‘Damin-o-koh’ and it was declared as the region of Santhals. The British asked them to settle there and take up farming using ploughs.

The British had asked the Santhals to cultivate at least in 10% of the land given to them. The region was surveyed, maps were prepared, boundaries were set and poles were fixed. This way the Santhal region was separated from the settled farmers of the plains and the Pahariyas of the hills.

Question 17.
What were the reasons for the Santhal Revolt? Who were their leaders? What were the outcomes of the Revolt?
Answer:
By 1850, the exploitation by outsiders became unbearable to the Santhals. They decided to fight against the Zamindars, the moneylenders and the government. They wanted to make an ideal world of their own with autonomy. In the beginning their protests were limited to robbing the homes of Zamindars and money lenders. But when the government tried to suppress the Santhals. the protests became violent. The rebels attacked “the Police and zamindars. They made their own army units and fought against their persecutors using guerrilla tactics. The leaders of the Santhal Revolt were two brothers – Sindhu and Kanu. The Revolt lasted 6 months. Finally the government put down the Revolt.

After suppressing the Revolt, the Government gave the Santhals a new area. It was called Santhal Pargana. It was some distance away from the Bhagalpur and Birdam districts. Government also made some reforms for the welfare of the Santhals. All these things were done with the intention of pacifying the Santhals.

Question 18.
The Permanent Settlement was not extended beyond Bengal, Justify this statement.
Answer:
The British rule in India started in Bengal. From there the British rule extended to the other parts of India. But the British were not interested in extending the Permanent Settlement into other parts of India. In the regions outside. Bengal new land tax systems called Ryotwari and Mahalwari were implemented.

Question 19.
The American Civil War and the Deccan Revolt have some connection. Do you agree with this statement?
Answer:
When the American Civil War started in 1861, there was great anxiety in the cloth manufacturing centres of England. Following the War, the import of raw cotton was drastically reduced. Only 3% of the normal import was got at this time. British government started sending urgent messages to India asking the Indian officials to send more cotton to England. The cotton mill owners of England came to Bombay see the situation in person and to encourage cotton cultivation here. The price of cotton skyrocketed.

The exporters of Bombay used this opportunity to make maximum profit. The British tried all they could to get more cotton from India. To encourage cotton cultivation, they gave advances to the ‘sahukars’ (moneylenders) of Bombay. The Sahukars gave money to the village moneylenders who gave this money to the farmers on high interest rates. It was easy for the farmers to get loans from these money lenders. The moneylenders were confident that they would get their money back. These developments helped the cotton farmers of Deccan to expand their cultivation.

Question 20.
What were the features of the Permanent Settlement? Was this system beneficial to the British?
Answer:
The Permanent Settlement was done with the Rajas and Talukdars in Bengal. They were considered as Zamindars. The Zamindars were to give a fixed amount as tax to the government each year. As per the Permanent Settlement, the Zamindars were not owners of the land. They had the status of tax collectors for the government. There were many villages under each zamindar. Some had up to 400 villages.

This system brought changes in the life of the farmers and zamindars of Bengal, the Pahariyas in the Rajamahal Hills and the Santhals. In the villages of Bombay Deccan also there were changes.

Throughout the 19^jj century, there were many agricultural revolts against money lenders and grain merchants. Some such important uprisings were the Deccan revolts of 1875. Revolts started in Pune and Ahmednagar districts. They were mainly against the moneylenders. But actually they were the results of the Permanent Settlement. The system was not beneficial to the British.

Question 21.
What were the features of the Ryotwari system? Was it beneficial to the British?
Answer:
The British realized that the Permanent Settlement they tried in Bengal was a failure. So in the Bombay Deccan area they tried a new system called the Ryotwari system. These are its features:

• It was an agreement done directly with the farmer. There were no middlemen between the farmers and the government. Farmers gave tax directly to the government.
• The income from different types of land was assessed and the ability of the farmer to give tax was also considered.
• A part of the income was decided as the tax payable to the government.
• A survey would be done every 30 years and then the rate might be increased. In that sense the Ryotwari was not a permanent system. It was renewed from time to time. On the whole it was beneficial to the British but not good for the farmers.

You can Download Kinship, Caste and Class Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 3 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class (Early Societies)

Question 1.
Who prepared the critical edition of Mahabharata?
Answer:
V.S. Sukthanker

Question 2.
Which is the most important book in Dharmasutra (Dharmasatra)?
Answer:
Manusmriti

Question 3.
What is the mode of traditional love marriage?
Answer:
Gandharva Marriage.

Question 4.
Which is the Veda in which ‘Purushasuktam’ is found?
Answer:
Rigveda

Question 5.
Who was the archaeologist that made excavations based on Mahabharata?
Answer:
B.B. Lai

Question 6.
Who is the author of “Kunti O Nishadi”?
Answer:
Masheshwata Devi

Question 7.
What does‘Kulam” indicate?
Answer:
Families

Question 8.
Who is the god of war and rain?
Answer:
Indra

Question 9.
Marriage in the same unit is called:
Answer:
‘Swagana’ marriage.

Question 10.
From where did the Sakas come to India?
Answer:
Central Asia

Question 11.
Match the items in column Awith those in Column B.

A	B
Mahabharata	Polyandry
Dharmasutras	Sutans
Suthapidaka	A chain of relatives
Draupati	Manusmriti

Answer:

A	B
Mahabharata	a chain of relatives
Dharmasutras	Manusmriti
SuttaPitaka	Sutans
Draupati	Polyandry

Question 12.
What is Mahabharata? Write a note.
Answer:
It is the longest epic in the world. It has more than one lakh slokas. This is the richest book in the Indian subcontinent. It took nearly a thousand years to write it, starting from 500 BC.
The central theme of Mahabharata is the conflict between Kauravas and Pandavas. This book talks about a number of social classes and their rules and regulations. The main characters of the story followed these rules as heeded. Any moving away (deviation) from these rules created conflicts.

Question 13.
What are the differences between ‘swagana’ marriage and ‘anyagana’ marriage?
Answer:
Swagana marriage means marrying within one’s own gana or group. This can be relatives, classes or castes and people living in the same place.
Anyagana marriage shows it is a marriage outside one’s gana-group.

Question 14.
How did clans (family groups) come into existence?
Answer:
Right from 1000 BC, the Brahmins began to divide people into clans or classes. Each clan was given a name of a Vedacharya. Members of that clan were considered his followers. There were two important rules regarding the clans:

1. A woman leaves the clan of her father and accepts the clan of her husband.
2. Members of one clan, can’t marry members of the same clan.

The Brahmin laws regarding the clans were not obeyed by all people. Rulers like the powerful Satavahanas, who ruled parts of Western India between 2^nd century BC and 2^nd century AD, did not follow the Brahmin laws. The wives of the Satavahana kings retained their fathers’ clan name. The clan names like ‘Gautama’, Vasishta’, etc. were of their fathers.

Question 15.
Describe the patriarchal order.
Answer:
From 6 century BC, most Indian Dynasties followed the patriarchal system. It was a male-dominant system. After the death of the father, only the sons were entitled to his property. If the father was a king, the right to the crown belonged to the sons. This patriarchal system played a big role in marriage.

Question 16.
To enforce the Caste System the Brahmins used some strategies. Explain.
Answer:
By the end of the Vedic period, the Caste system became very strict. Brahmins used the caste system to ensure their supremacy in society. They claimed that this system was divinely ordained. The divine origin of the caste system was emphasized in the Dharmasastra also.

• The highest position in the caste system was given to Brahmins by the Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras. The untouchables were placed at the bottom of the ladder.
• The caste of a person was based on birth.

The Brahmins did all they could to make people follow the caste system. They formulated three techniques,

1. They propagated that the caste system is ordained by god.
2. They asked the kings to strictly enforce this system in their countries.
3. They tried to convince people that one’s class and caste are decided by birth.

Question 17.
What were the duties of Chandalas?
Answer:
Manusmriti has detailed the duties of the Chandalas. They should live outside the village. They can use only the discarded pots and pans. They should wear ornaments made of iron and clothes of the dead. They could not walk in the towns and villages at night. It was their duty to dispose of the dead bodies of those who had no relatives. They also had to work as executioners.

Question 18.
Who is the real author of Mahabharata? Assess the various viewpoints.
Answer:
One of the responsibilities of the scholars was the preparation of a critical edition of Mahabharata. This hugely challenging scheme was accepted by the handarkar Oriental Research Institute. This scheme began in 1919 under the leadership of the Sanskrit scholar V.S. Sukthanker. Dozens of scholars took part in this s big scheme. The work went on in good order, strictly following the scientific method.

Before embarking on this project, the scholars under Sukthanker collected as many manuscripts as they could get from different parts of India. After that, they compared the slokas in different manuscripts. They then chose the common slokas found in all versions. Then they published them in different volumes running into more than 13,000 pages. It took them 47 years to complete this task. Two things became clear from this project.

First of all, there were common features in the Sanskrit version of the story. There are evidences for this from the manuscripts collected from all over India, from Kashmir and Nepal in the North and Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the South. The second thing is that there were regional variations in the story. This happened centuries ago and the books became popular. All these differences are shown as footnotes and appendices, in the main book.

More than half of the entire book is devoted to these differences. The social history of India is made up of some very complex processes. We are to understand these processes from the Sanskrit books written by Brahmins. It was the historians of the 19^th and 20^th centuries that looked into the problems of social history. Therefore they took these books on their face value. Later the scholars also began to study the books written in Prakrit and Tamil.

It is the ideas in the Sanskrit books that are generally approved as authentic. But sometimes they have been questioned or rejected. When we consider how the social history was reconstructed, we should also remember that there were many differences even among scholars.

Question 19.
What are the exceptions of the patriarchal system?
Answer:
There were some exceptions and differences to the patriarchal system. If a family did not have male children, the brothers of the king would have the right to the crown. In some circumstances, other relatives also claimed the crown. On very rare occasions even women claimed authority and property as in the case of Prabhavati Gupta.

1. The patriarchal system did not limit itself to royal families.
2. Brahmins, people in high positions and rich people also followed this system.

Question 20.
According to Manusmriti, who are the heirs to the property of the dead father?
Answer:
Manusmriti says that the paternal property should be divided among the sons after the death of the parents. He said that the eldest son should be given a bigger share. But female children had no right to these properties. However, women were allowed to keep the gifts they received at the time of their wedding.

Later such gifts went to their children. Husbands had no right over these things. At the same time, women were not allowed to keep family property or expensive items without the knowledge of their husbands.

Manusmriti says that there are 7 ways for men to earn wealth: hereditary property, property that one makes, property that is bought, confiscated property, deposits, profession and property received from benefactors. Six ways are suggested for women to earn wealth, wealth received through pledge by fire, wealth received through marriage, wealth received because of affection, wealth got from father, mother or brother, wealth got as gifts, and the riches given by the loving husband.

Question 21.
What is meant by Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras? Who upholds them?
Answer:
With the coming of the new towns and cities, social life became more complex. People from far and near began to come to the urban centres to sell their products and get their needs. It also gave the people an opportunity to exchange ideas. Then they started questioning the old faiths and rituals. To face these challenges, the Brahmins formulated a code of conduct.

The rules that people had to keep in their day-to-day life were included in this code. These rules were to be rigidly observed by the common people, but only less rigidly by Brahmins. From 500 BC, these rules were published as Sanskrit books. They were known as Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras.

Question 22.
Who was Gandhari? What advice did she give Duryodhana?
Answer:
Gandhari was the mother of Kauravas. Duryodhana was her eldest son. The Mahabharata talks about the advice given by Gandhari to Duryodhana when the battle between the Kauravas and Pandavas became certain. She advised him to establish peace between the two groups.

This is what she said: “By establishing peace, you will be showing your” obedience to your father, me and your benefactors. It is the wise man who can control his senses that will guide his country.

Greed and anger takes a person away from his achievements. A king that can defeat these two enemies can conquer the entire world. My son, enjoy this earth with the Pandavas who are wise and fit to be leaders. War does not bring any good, morality or profit. Don’t prepare your mind for war.”

Question 23.
Explain the relation between the Satavahana rulers and the status of women.
Answer:
Names of many kings belonging to different generations of Satavahanas have been found on the stone inscriptions. The Satavahana kings used the title king and the word ‘Putra’ at the end of their names. Putra is a word in Prakrit language, it means son. Gautami-Putra means the son of Gautami. The names ‘Gautami’ and ‘Vasati’ are the feminine forms of the ’ tribes ‘Gotame’ and ‘Vasishta’which were named by the Vedacharyas.

Question 24.
What is the meaning of the word ‘Vanik’ mentioned in Sanskrit books? Were they merely Vaisyas?
Answer:
Vanik was the word used in Sanskrit books and inscriptions to mean traders. According to the Sastras, trading is the profession of the Vaisyas. But in the plays like Mrichhakadikam (written the 4itl century AD) by Sudrakan, some highly complex situations are seen.

Charudattan, who is the hero of the play, is shown both as a Brahmin and also a trader. In one inscription belonging to the 5th century, it is shown that two brothers, shown as Kshatriya- Vanikar, giving a donation for the building of a temple.

Question 25.
Who are called Chandalas by the Brahmins?
Answer:
Brahmins considered certain tasks as impure. Burying the dead bodies of both people and animals was considered such a task. People who did this kind of work we’re called Chandalas. They were at the bottom of the caste ladder. The upper caste people believed that even seeing such people made them impure.

Question 26.
The stories of Mahabharata are divided into two groups by historians. Was the division very strict? Explain.
Answer:
The contents of Mahabharata have been usually grouped by historians into two parts – narrative arid didactic. In the narrative part, there are stories. In the didactic part, there are suggestions regarding social rules and regulations.

This is not a very strict division. Even in the didactic portion, there are stories. In the same way, there are suggestions in the portion of stories. Whatever be the case, historians agree that Mahabharata is a dramatic and touching story. They feel that the didactic part was added to the Mahabharata during the post-Mauryan period.

Question 27.
Discuss the differences between Varna and Jati.
Answer:
The Brahmin books speak about the social divisions called Jati. According to the thinking of Brahmins, birth is the basis for Jati, just like it is the basis for caste. There are only 4 Varnas. But the number of Jatis has no limit. Whenever the Brahmin chiefs met new groups which did not fit in with the 4 Varnas, they considered them as Jatis.

For example, they categorized the Nishadas living in the forests and the goldsmiths (Suvamakarar) as Jatis, as they were not fitting into the Varna System.

Question 28.
Property rights were decided by gender. Explain.
Answer:
It was gender the decided property rights. Evidence for this is available from a sub-story in the Mahabharata. There was constant rivalry between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. With the intention of cheating the Pandavas, Duryodhana invited Yudhishtira for a game of dice.

In the game, Dharmaputra mortgaged gold, elephants, chariots, slaves, army, treasury, country, the wealth of the subjects, brothers arid even himself. He lost all these. Finally, he even pledged his wife Panchali to continue with the game. This part of the story makes the importance of gender in matters of property.

Question 29.
“Not all families are alike.” Evaluate this statement.
Answer:
Family is the basic unit of the society. But not all families are alike. They differ in the number of members or size, mutual relations, and the different kinds of work they do and their responsibilities. The members of the family share their food and other facilities.

They live together and work together and follow certain rituals. Families are part of a large chain that is referred to as kinfolk. Relations in the family are natural and based on blood. In some communities, cousins are considered to be related by blood. But some others don’t think so.

Question 30.
What is special about Hastjnapur?
Answer:
In the first section of Mahabharata, Hastinapur is equated with the city of Devendra. This city was like a sea. There were hundreds of tall palatial buildings with their intricate gates and archways and plenty of small towers. The clouds hovered above them giving them a heavenly glow which made the city look like the city of Devendra.

Question 31.
According to the Sastras, only Kshatriyas could become kings. Do you think this rule was always kept? Justify your answer.
Answer:
According to the Sastras, only Kshatriyas could become kings. But many important dynasties did not belong to the class of Kshatriyas.

1. The Mauryas were not Kshatriyas. The Brahmin books consider them to be people belonging to. a lower class. Modern historians believe that the Mauryas were Vaisyas.
2. Sungas and Kannuas were Brahmins.
3. The Sakas that came from Central Asia were considered uncultured by the Brahmins.
4. Satavahana Kings claimed they were Brahmins: The most famous Satavahana King, Gautami Putra Satakarni called himself ‘Eka-Brahmin’ He also claimed to be the one who destroyed the pride of the Kshatriyas.

Question 32.
People who did not accept the ideas of the Brahmins were branded as uncultured and equal to animals. Critically evaluate this statement.
Answer:
There were many people in the society who did not accept the ideas of the Brahmins. Sanskrit books speak of these people, who were outside the circle of Brahmin influences, as uncultured, evil and equal to animals.

1. Forest dwellers, hunters, Nishadas, wandering shepherds, etc. were in this category.
2. People who could not speak Sanskrit were branded uncultured. They were looked upon with contempt. In spite of the mistreatment given to them, these people mutually shared their ideas and beliefs.
3. In some Mahabharata stories, the character of their relations can be seen clearly.

Question 33.
Through one legend in Sutta Pitaka, the social contract theory is explained. Describe the essence of this theory and evaluate its importance.
Answer:
Sutta Pitaka is a Buddhist book. There is a legend here. It says that man did not have a body that was full in shape. In the same way, the flora also had not developed completely. All the people lived in peace. They were happy and contented. They took only what they wanted from Nature. In short, it was an ideal society. But this state of things did not last long. Slowly it began to crack up: People became greedy, vengeful and deceitful.

This caused fights in the society. In this condition, people thought of electing an able person who could establish peace and drive away the mischief-makers. Since he was chosen by all the people, he was called Mahasamanthan. This theory has many levels of meaning:

1. It shows that kingship is something made by man. It came from a social contract According to that the king agreed to serve people. In return for his services, people agreed to give him taxes.
2. It acknowledges the act that people have a role in creating economic and social relations among men and in institutionalizing them.
3. It shows that since people created the system, they also have a right to change it when feel like changing it.

Question 34.
Archaeologist B.B. Lalmade extensive researches to find out the convergence between Mahabharata and real history. Give your views on the researches.
Answer:
In the Mahabharata, there are lively descriptions about the battles, forests, palaces, settlements and so on. Many historians have tried to find out the historicity of these descriptions. They are trying to find out how far the descriptions in Mahabharata are true to reality.

In 1951-52, B.B. Lal, a famous archaeologist, made extensive excavations in Hastinapur of Meerut in U.P. He tried to find out if this city is the same as the one mentioned in Mahabharata.

There is similarity in the name. Lai made excavations in the upper part of the Gangetic plain, where the country called Kuru was located. The Hastinapur mentioned in Mahabharata might have been the capital of the Kurus.

B.B. Lai found evidence of 6 levels of living houses (settlements) there. The 2^nd and 3^rd levels are especially important. The period of the 2^nd level settlement is from 12^th to 7^th century BC. Remains of houses have been found here. The walls were made of bamboos, covered with mud paste.

The period of the 3^rd level settlement is from the 6^th to 3^rdcentury BC. Lai found that the houses of this period were built with clay bricks and baked blocks. He also noticed the remains of drainages.

The findings of Lai do not conform to the descriptions of Hastinapur in Mahabharata. In Mahabharata, the city is described as a great city with hundreds of multiple story buildings and towers. The age described in the Itihasa is the same as that of the second level settlement. But here there are no indications of any big structure.

Therefore, historians think that the description of the city of Hastinapur in Mahabharata might have been added at a later date. There are also people who believe that the description came from somebody’s fertile imagination. They point out that there is no evidence to prove the description of Hastinapur as found in the Mahabharata.

Question 35.
“The growth of Mahabharata did not stop with the Sanskrit edition.” Justify this statement.
Answer:
The main feature of Mahabharata is its energy or vitality. With the writing of the Sanskrit edition, the growth did not stop. Different editions of the Itihasa have been written in different languages over centuries. Some special stories that originated or were popular among the local people also became part of the Itihasa.

Even the main plot of the Itihasa was restructured in many places. Many of the incidents in the Itihasa were depicted in statues and pictures, It gave themes to many performing arts like drama and dance.

The main story of the Mahabharata was rewritten by many writers in their works. ‘Yayati’ by V.S. Khandekar, ‘Randamoozham’by M.T. Vasudevan Nair and Kunti and Nishadin’by Maheshwata Devi are the chief among them. Maheshwata Devi is a famous Bengali writer.

She has received many awards including ‘Jnanapidom’. She is a famous writer who is known for raising her voice against exploitations of all kinds. From the main story in the Mahabharata, she made some parallel stories. She answered many questions that Mahabharata kept silent about.

Question 36.
Eight types of marriages are mentioned in the Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras. Which are they and what are their special features?
Answer:

1. Brahma Marriage – In this type, the adorned bride is given in marriage to a wise, gentlemanly bridegroom.
2. Prajapatya Marriage – Here the father gives his daughter in marriage without any dowry. This is an altered version of Brahma marriage.
3. Arsha Marriage – Here the father of the girl gives his daughter to the bridegroom from whom he gets a pair of bulls or cows.
4. Daiva Marriage-Here the bridegroom is a priest.
5. Asura Marriage – Here the bridegroom gives the bride price to the.father of the bride for getting the girl married to him.
6. Gandharva Marriage – This is love marriage in the traditional way.
7. Rakshasa Marriage – The bride is kidnapped from her house and then she is given to the bridegroom.
8. Paisacha Marriage – This was very rare. Here the man molests the girl and since she has lost her virginity she is forced to marry the molester.

Question 37.
What was the reason for the existence of polyandry?
Answer:
Because of frequent wars, there was a shortage of men, as many rru&i died during wars. There were many more women than men. Polyandry was the result of such a crisis. Early sources make it very clear that polyandry was not a widespread practice.

Question 38.
There are rules regarding the 4 Vamas (Classes) and about their work in the Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras. Describe them based on the Purushasuktam.
Answer:
The Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras specify the kind of work the 4 classes have to do.

1. The Brahmins were to learn and teach Vedas, perform Yagas and give and receive alms.
2. The Kshatriyas were to fight in wars, protect people, ensure justice, learn Vedas, get Yagas done and give alms.
3. The Vaisyas were also to learn Vedas, get Yagas done and give alms. In addition, they were to practice agriculture, do trading, and keep sheep.
4. The Sudras were to do only one thing – serve the other 3 Classes.

Question 39.
“The Mahabharata is a highly energetic book.” Based on this statement, prepare an essay about Mahabharata.
Answer:
When talking about books, historians take certain aspects into consideration.

1. Their language, whether it is in Pali, Prakrit, Tamil or Sanskrit.
2. Their genre – Are they mantras or stories?
3. Their authors, their viewpoints, the ideas that prompted them to write the book.
4. Their intended readers. Writers write books keeping in view the interests of their intended readers.
5. Their time and place of publication.

Only after looking into these things, the historians assess the contents of the books and their historical importance. It is a difficult task. In the case of a complicated book like Mahabharata, their task becomes all the more difficult.

Language and Content of Mahabharata: It is available in many languages. The Sanskrit of Mahabharata is simpler than that of the Vedas and Prasashtis for example, the Allahabad Prasashti. That is why many people could read and understand Mahabharata. Its simple language made it more popular.

The contents are divided into two – narrative and didactic. In the narrative part, there are stories. In the didactic part, there are suggestions on social rules and regulations. The division is not very strict, as they overlap. Whatever be the case, Mahabharata is a fine story. It is believed that the didactic part was added after the Maurya period.

Mahabharata is qualified as an Itihasa of the early Sanskrit literature. Itihasa means ‘It – hasa’ -“Thus It Was”. That is why it is considered history. The biggest event in the Mahabharata is the Battle of Kurukshetra. Among historians, there are differing views about this Battle.

Some say it was a real fight between relatives. But there are people who think there was never such a battle. There is no proof at all about such a battle.

Authors and Dates: Historians differ in these. Traditionally, some people think Vyasa Maharshi wrote it. But modem historians think it was written by different writers. Initially, in Mahabharata there were only less than 10,000 slokas. But it grew into a huge book with more 100,000 slokas.

It is not possible for a single person to write such a huge book. It is also believed that it was written at different periods.The original story of Mahabharata was made by a group of poets, known as ‘Sutas’.

These Sutas accompanied the Khastriyas into the battlegrounds and sang about the exploits and victories of the soldiers. These stories orally passed from generation to generation. It is believed that the writing of Mahabharata began in the 5^thcentury BC. The Brahmins took the initiative for this. They collected orally transmitted stories and wrote them down.

The chiefdoms called Kuru and Panchalam (the story of Mahabharata is about these) were becoming independent countries then. The kings must have wanted their history to be properly recorded. These new countries had to fight a lot of battles. Those – battles also must have found their way into the main plot.

The period from 2^nd century BC to 2^nd century AD was another important stage in the writing of Mahabharata. It was a time when the adoration of Vishnu was getting popular. Krishna who is an important character in Mahabharata is known as an ‘avatar’ of Vishnu.

Between the 2^nd and 4^th century AD, didactic sections closely resembling Manusmriti were added to Mahabharata. Thus it grew into a book of 100,000 slokas. The search for Convergence: In the Mahabharata, there are lively descriptions about the battles, forests, palaces, settlements and so on. Many historians have tried to find out the historicity of these descriptions. They were trying to find out how far the descriptions in Mahabharata are true to reality.

In 1951-52, B.B. Lai, a famous archaeologist, made extensive excavations in Hastinapur of Meerut in U.P. He tried to find out if this city is the same as the one mentioned in Mahabharata. There is similarity in the name. Lai made excavations in the upper part of the Gangetic plain, where the country called Kuru was located. The Hastinapur mentioned in Mahabharata might have been the capital of the Kurus.
B.B. Lai found evidence of 6 levels of living houses (settlements) there.

The 2^nd and 3^rd levels are especially important. The period of the 2^nd level settlement is from 12^th to 7^th century BC. Remains of houses have been found here. The walls were made of bamboos, covered with mud paste, The period of the 3^rd level settlement is from the 6^th to 3^rd century BC. Lai found that the houses of this period were built with clay bricks and baked blocks. He also noticed the remains of drainages.

The findings of Lai do not conform to the descriptions of Hastinapur in Mahabharata. In Mahabharata, the city is described as a great city with hundreds of multiple story buildings and towers. The age described in the Itihasa is the same as that of the second level settlement. But here there are no indications of any big structure.

Therefore, historians think that the description of the city of Hastinapur in Mahabharata might have been added at a later date. There are also people who believe that the description came from somebody’s fertile imagination. They point out that there is no evidence to prove the description of Hastinapur as found in the Mahabharata.

You can Download Pre Modern Kerala Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 14 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 14 Pre Modern Kerala

Question 1.
Who is the author of Mooshaka Vansa Kavya?
Answer:
Athulan

Question 2.
What was the river basin area in the Tinais?
Answer:
Mamtham

Question 3.
The farmers who cultivate the land taken on lease are called?
Answer:
Karalar

Question 4.
What is Anchuvannam?
Answer:
A group of merchants

Question 5.
The capital of Perumals.
Answer:
Makothai

Question 6.
The author of Perumal Tirumozhi?
Answer:
KulasekharaAlwar

Question 7.
What was the name given to the Code of Conduct of the Perumals?
Answer:
Kacha

Question 8.
The Brahmin Committee that administered the Sankethams?
Answer:
Yogam

Question 9.
Who brought the ‘Cartaz’ system?
Answer:
The Portuguese

Question 10.
The ruler who defeated the Dutch in the Colachel Battle?
Answer:
Marthanda Varma

Question 11.
The Organizer of Thrissur Pooram?
Answer:
Saktan Thampuran

Question 12.
Write a brief note on the prehistoric period of Kerala.
Answer:
It is not certain when people began to live in Kerala. It is believed that right from the Stone Age period, people lived here. In the Palaeolithic period, people were hunters and collectors of food. In the Mesolithic period, they made their living by catching fish. In short, prior to the Neolithic period, people made their living by hunting, collecting food and fishing.

In the Neolithic period, agriculture started all over the world. This brought revolutionary changes in the life of people. Although agriculture started in Kerala at this time, people continued hunting and fishing.

Question 13.
What are the professional groups connected with temples?
Answer:
There were many groups of people working with temple matters. Here are the most important of them:

1. Sabhayar – They were members of the Sabha and were the most powerful Brahmins.
2. Bhattas and Chattirs – the Brahmin scholars and students connected with the temple salas.
3. Tantrikal-They were the Santiadikal

There were also non-Brahmins working in the temples. These are the important ones:

1. Pothuval – General Secretary of the Temple
2. Akapothuval – In-charge of the internal matters of the temple.
3. Purapothuval – In-charge of the external matters of the temple
4. Variam – Committee for the supervision of temple work; Thottavariam means Committee supervising the garden.
5. Kottikal – Those who beat the chenda (tom-toms, or drums).
6. Nanka/Nakachi – Female Dancers
7. Chakyars-Male dancers
8. Adikkumavar-Sweepers
9. Wakidumavar-Distribute firewood

Question 14.
HowwasTamizhakam divided into different Tinais?
Answer:
In the Sangham Boetfe, five Tinais of different regions are mentioned.
They are Kurinchi, Mullai, Palai, Marutham and Neithal.
Kurinchi is the mountainous region, Mullai is the forest area, Palai is the dry place, Marutham is the agricultural land of the river basin, and Neithal is the shore. In the different Tinais different ways of earning livelihood existed.

Question 15.
What is Kaccam?
Answer:
We don’t have any clear records about the laws existing in the Perumal period. But we have some indications about the code of conduct existing then. This code of conduct is called ‘kaccam’. Temples and villages followed it. The most important kaccam was Moozhikkala Kaccam. Then there were four regional Systems known as Kadankat Kaccam, Thavaranur Kaccam, Sankaramangalathu kaccam, and Kaithavarathu Kaccam. The punishments for breaking the ‘kaccam’ are shown. They include ostracism, ousting from positions, confiscation of property and ostracising people from social and political matters.

Question 16.
Write about agricultural growth after the Perumal Era.
Answer:
The production of different crops continued even after the Perumal era. Some small changes, however, took place, until the 18^th century. In the wet soil with silt, in the compounds and lands around, agriculture was done. There was a considerable increase in agriculture. Paddy cultivation continued as before. It was the main food crop. Paddy was cultivated in the wet soil and in the low-lying areas between small hills and plateaus.

The evidences available in the Perumchellur and Kilimahur inscriptions show that rice cultivation was continued for long. From the Malayalam Books of the Middle Ages also we see that paddy was cultivated 2 or 3 times each year.

Different varieties of rice was cultivated. Kuruvachannel, Ponkali, Anakkadan, Cholan, Kadan, Modan, Killiyira and Viravittan varieties are mentioned in the book “Unnunili Sandesam”. By the 16^th century, all available wetlands were brought under cultivation. Agriculture was spread into the hillsides and valleys of small hills. The black soil fields between Kochi and Kollam were also used for cultivation.

Paddy was also imported from outside Kerala. After rice cultivation, the fields were used to plant banana. Pepper was a cash crop that was extensively cultivated at this period. It was grown in the compounds of households and also in the fields. There were no special groves for pepper. It was cultivated with other crops.

In ‘Sukasandesam’ written in the 14^th century, there is a description of the pepper vines climbing on coconut trees. Cardamom and Ginger were cultivated in the compounds of households. Turmeric was brought from Malabar. Nutmeg came from Kochi. Indigo came from Kollam. “Unniyachi Charitam” shows that indigo was sold in the markets. Cinnamon was also cultivated.

Coconut was an important item of cultivation. Coconuts were used for food and trade. In a Chinese book called “Daoyi Zhilue” written in the 14^th century, there is a description of the Kerala shore full of coconut trees. Fei Hsin, a Chinese Traveller of the 15^th century, has recorded that coconut was exported along with pepper, fish and area nut. By the 16^th century, coconut became an important trade item. By the 18th century, area nut farms spread all over Kerala. Area nut trees were found in compounds. There was a great demand for timber like teak and rosewood. Timber was collected from the forests and exported.

As the population was increasing, the cultivation of food crops had to be increased. The crops grown in the compounds were used for internal and external trade. Although there was cultivation of cash crops and food crops, a lot of land in Kerala was unfit for cultivation. It was the forests of Kerala that helped Kerala to have good economic strength.

Question 17.
What were the features of Swaroopams?
Answer:
Swaroopam was a political center of the 12^th century Kerala. It maintained a small army. They were called Ayirathavar, Pathinayirathavar, Padamalanayarand so on. Swaroopams had household deities.

There was something called ‘ariyittuvazhcha’. The eldest member of the family became the Moopan with elaborate rituals. The elevation to this status is called ariyittuvazhcha. It was also called ‘Hiranyagarbham’. During this time the rulers took some fancy titles. SwaroopamlTilid their own land. Their main income was from land. They also had political power over areas under their jurisdiction.

Question 18.
Explain the changes the European brought in the trade of Kerala.
Answer:
The Portuguese finished the monopoly that Arabs had in the Malabar Trade. By bringing Cartaz system they established their monopoly of sea trade, They got into trade agreements with the rulers of Kozhikode, Kannur, Kochi, and Kollam.

Question 19.
Describe the various reforms brought about by Marthanda Varma.
Answer:
One of the important steps he took was “Thnppadidanam”. On 3 January 1750, he dedicated the native state of Travancore as a donation to Sri Padmanabhan. By this Sri, Padmanabhan Swami became the owner and the king became his servant. With this Thrippadidanam, any mutiny and criticism against the king would be considered an anti-religious act.

Marthada Varma divided the country into many Revenue Units. The lowest unit was a village. The responsibility of the village administration was given to ‘pravarthiar’. A collection of villages was called “Mandapathu Vatikkal” It was under a manager, similar to a future tehsildar. Travancore was divided into 20 Mandapathu Vatikkals.
Marthanda Varma brought the system of presenting a yearly budget. It was called ‘Pathivu Kanakku’ (Regular accounts).

He organized a regular army. Soldiers were recruited from ordinary farmers. The farmers who served as soldiers were given tax exemption during their service period. This was known as ‘Irayili’. After retirement, soldiers were given a pension. It was called ‘Irayili aduthur’. To train the Travancore army, he got the assistance of a Dutch captain named De Lannoy.

Question 20.
What are ‘Granthavarikal? Name them.
Answer:
They are a great source for studying the history of Kerala of the Middle Ages. These are the collections of documents by which temples and dynasties transferred landed properties.

To establish one’s ownership of a property, only these documents were available. The following are the most important f them:

1. Mdthilakom Granthavari (Padmanabha Swami Temple)
2. Perumpadappu Granthavari (Kochi)
3. Kozhikodan Granthavari (Zamorins).
4. Vanjeri Granthavari
5. Koodali Granthavari

Question 21.
Write a note on Colechal Battle.
Answer:
Marthanda Varma conducted a series of wars against the Dutch. The Dutch made extensive preparations to fight with Marthanda Varma. A Dutch Army with cannons (huge guns) left Sri Lanka heading for Travancore. They landed at Colachel. They attacked arid captured places up to Kotar. Then the army moved to the fort of Marthanda Varma at Kaikalam. On 10 August 1741, the armies of the Dutch and Marthada Varma fought bitterly. The Dutch were routed. Many were taker) prisoners including Captain De Lannoy. Later he became the trainer, The Big Captain’, of Marthanda Varma’s army.

• The Colachel War did a lot of harm to the Dutch. It prevented their further growth and advancement.
• This was the first war in which a foreign army was defeated by a native king.

Question 22.
Evaluate the references found in Books of Literature and notes of foreign travelers regarding the progress in Kerala Trade.
Answer:
The surplus agricultural production here helped both internal and external trade. Things for daily use were exchanged in the local markets. These included rice, corn, vegetables, coconut oil, banana, and such things. There were daily markets, weekly markets, night markets and village markets for such exchanges. In the UnniChiruthevi Charitram, there is a description of a practical exchange center at Ayanarchira in the region of Valluvanad. Similarly, in “Unnunili Sandesam”, there is a description of a daily market in Karianad nearThiruvalla.

Question 23.
What are Swaroopams?
Answer:
Swaroopams were regions which enjoyed autonomy. They were controlled by strong matriarchal families. These big matriarchal families had occupied huge areas of land. Over these areas, the families had political and judicial authority. They were political power centers in those days.

Question 24.
In many parts of Central Kerala, there were Sankethams. What were they? Explain their structure and activities.
Answer:
Sanketham was another center of political power in Kerala. The Sankethams of temples and Brahmins were very famous. They are areas with semi-autonomous rule. In a Sanketham there would be one Brahmin temple and some villages around it. There were two types of Sankethams. a) Those founded by landowning Brahmins, b) Those founded by rulers to show their love and veneration for some deities or Brahmins.

Sankethams had a divine quality about them. Because of that, they were protected from wars and riots. Many Sankethams were administered by a Committee of Brahmins. These Committees were called Yogams.

In the Middle Ages in many parts of Kerala, Sankethams were in existence. K.P. Padmanabha Menon seems them as independent republics free from the control of the king. But the Vancheri Granthavari says that Sanketham was dependent on the nearby chiefs. For the formation of the Yogam, and for law and order problems they relied on the chiefs.
The property of Sanketam was protected by the local army. Such an army was called ‘Changatam’. In return for their services, they were given ‘kavalpanam’ (protection money), usually in the form of a share of the produce.

The spread of Swaroopam and Sanketam led to the growth of different kinds of landowning rights. It also caused the growth of agriculture – both cash crops and food crops. It also brought changes in the agricultural relations in places controlled by-laws relating to Jati Systems.

You can Download Understanding Partition Questions and Answers, Notes, Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Kerala Chapter 13 help you to revise complete Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus Two History Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 13 Understanding Partition (Politics, Memories, Experiences)

Question 1.
The law that brought separate constituencies for Muslims.
Answer:
Minto-Morley Reforms

Question 2.
Which Reformation Group was connected with the “Suddhi Movement”?
Answer:
Arya Samaj

Question 3.
Who prepared the Pakistan Resolution?
Answer:
Sikander Hayat Khan

Question 4.
The person who suggested the name Pakistan?
Answer:
Rehmat Ali

Question 5.
The director of the film‘Tamas’?
Answer:
Govind Nihlani

Question 6.
Do you agree with the view that the partition of India was a holocaust? Critically examine the issue.
Answer:
Holocaust means destruction and murder on a huge scale. During partition, large scale looting, murder, rape and arson were done. That is why Partition is called a holocaust.
The Nazis in Germany killed millions of Jews. Holocaust is used to refer to this mass murder. In this sense, the Partition of India also was a holocaust. The horrible things that happened in the Indian subcontinent make calling the Partition as a holocaust quite justifiable. Words like ‘Partition’ hide the seriousness of the killing and looting that went on during that time.

Question 7.
The anti-Indians in Pakistan and anti-Pakistanis in India were. the product of the Partition. Evaluate this statement.
Answer:
It is quite true that the anti-Indians in Pakistan and anti-Pakistanis in India were the product of the Partition. R.M. Murphy, a famous journalist, says that there are many anti-Hindus in Pakistan and anti- Muslims in India. They consider their opposite group as cruel, fanatical and vicious. Such misconceptions were in existence even before partition. But these beliefs were strengthened with the unfortunate happenings in 1947.

The voices of hared are still heard in both countries. When there are communal problems, anger and hatred come in the open. People mutually accuse each other, repeating the atrocities committed during the partition time. The policies of both India and Pakistan were based, to an extent, on these misconceptions.

Question 8.
The Partition is the central part of a long history. Based on this statement, explain the causes that led to the Partition and its outcomes.
Answer:
Some historians, both in India and Pakistan, believe that the Two-Nation Theory of Mohammed Ali Jinnah had actually originated in the Middle Ages. The two-nation theory stresses that the Hindus and Muslims of Colonial India are to separate nations. They show that difference has been in existence for centuries. The Partition of 1947 was just a climax for the long-standing rivalries.

These historians stress only rivalries. They do not see the friendship and cooperation that existed between them. Although there were differences between the two communities there was also the sharing of cultural and economic aspects.

Some scholars say that the Partition was the result of the communal politics that began in India in the beginning of the 20^th century. It was the separate constituencies allowed to the Muslims that caused such divisive thinking. Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909 allowed these separate constituencies. The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms expanded the concept still further. Separate constituencies helped the Muslims to elect their own representatives.

This was exploited by politicians. They started promoting religious thinking. Each politician, whether Hindu or Muslim, did some favours to the members of his community and thus gained acceptance among them. Their only purpose was to gain power by playing the religious card. Religious concepts began to influence politics. Enmity between religious groups grew.

Some incidents that took place in the first decades of the 20^th century also increased the tension between the two communities. In the 1920s and 30s, this enmity grew.

• Singing in front of the mosques, Save-the-Cow Movement, and the Suddhi Movement by Arya Samaj which tried to bring back coverts into other religions including Islam, made the Muslims unhappy.
• The growth of some Islamic Organizations like Tabligh (Islamic Preaching) enraged Hindus.
• Fanatics in both groups tried to organize their members with greater unity and solidarity. Opposing groups often clashed. This caused communal riots in many parts of the country.

Question 9.
What was the role played by the Congress Ministries in increasing the enmity between the Congress and the League?
Answer:
First elections to the vincial Assemblies were conducted in 1937. Only between 10 to 12% of the population had voting rights. The Congress won big victories. In 5 provinces, it had simple majority. In two provinces it had the highest number of seats. Thus Congress was able to form ministries in 7 out of 11 provinces. In two provinces there was coalition government.

In the Muslim Constituencies, the performance of the Congress was bad.

The performance of the Muslim League was very bad. It got only a small portion of the Muslim votes polled. In the North-West Frontier Province, it did not get even a single seat. In Punjab there were 84 Reservation seats. The League got only 2 out of these. In Sindh there were 33 Reservation seats. The League got 3.

Muslim League wanted to make a Coalition Ministry in United Province (present UP) by collaborating with the Congress. But since Congress had the simple majority. Congress refused League’s request. This increased the enmity between the Congress and League. League was now sure that in an untied India it would never get political power. The League started thinking that only a Muslim Party could look after the interests of the Muslims. It said that Congress was a Hindu Party.

Jinnah argued that League was the spokesperson for all Muslims. But this argument was not initially accepted. Only in 3 Provinces – United Province, Bombay and Madras – the League had some popularity. Its base was weak in Bengal, North-West Frontier Province and Punjab. (It is interesting to note that Pakistan was formed from these 3 Provinces.) Even in Sindh, League failed to form the government. League learned a lesson from this failure in the elections, It realized the importance of increasing its base and popularity among the Muslims. For that, it played the religious card.

In the meantime, Congress embarked on a programme to become more popular among Muslims. But it did not work. However, Congress tried to be a secular party. It began to propagate itself as the spokesperson for secularism. This secular stance of the Congress party frightened conservative Muslims and also some very rich Muslims who owned large estates.

Question 10.
The Partition was a sudden thing. What is your reaction to this statement? Explain with examples.
Answer:
Some believe that the Partition was a sudden affair. In 1940, even the League was not sure what it wanted. Initially, they wanted only “Muslim Majority Provinces with Autonomy”. But this simple demand grew into the demand for a separate nation in just 7 years. Nobody knew what the formation of a new nation implied or how it would affect the lives of the people in the future. Those who left their homes following the Partition were hoping that they would be able to return to their homes later when things settled.

Question 11.
What were the recommendations of the Cabinet Mission? How did the political parties receive them?
Answer:
These were the recommendations:

• Formation of an Indian Union including the British Provinces and the native states. India should remain one.
• Defence, Foreign Affairs and Communication should be handled by the Centre. Other matters may be administered by the Province and native states.
• The existing Provinces would be grouped into A, B, and C. In A group there will be Provinces with Hindu
  majority.
• In the B group, there will be Provinces of Muslim majority from the North West region. In Group C, Muslim Majority Provinces of the North East, including Assam, will be included.
• A Constitution-making Committee will be made. This Committee will be elected by the Provincial Assemblies.
• Until the Constitution is prepared, an Ad-hoc government will be formed in the Centre. It will consist of leaders of different political parties.
• Partition soon became inevitable. Most Congress leaders were against it. But they.had to finally agree to it They knew that although it was undesirable it was inevitable.
• There were only two people who vehemently opposed partition – Gandhi and Frontier Gandhi (Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan).

Question 12.
The Partition was an unavoidable tragedy. Do you think so? Compare the attitude of the Congress and Gandhiji about Partition.
Answer:
In an atmosphere that was tense and dangerous, Gandhiji came forward to establish peace and religious harmony among the warring people. He was 77 and all his life he had held fast to the principle of non-violence. He was ready to sacrifice everything he had for his principle. He believed that he could convince people to be peaceful. From the village of Noakhali in East Bengal, he travelled to the villages of Bihar trying to pacify people.

He also went to the slums of Calcutta and Delhi which were seriously affected by communal riots. He tried his best to prevent members of one community murdering the members of the other. Wherever he went he tried to build the confidence of the minority. However, the Congress Party, on the whole, believed that Partition was inevitable and after the initial objection most of the Congress Party leaders agreed to it.

Question 13.
How did the Partition affect the life of women?
Answer:
Historians have analyzed the feelings of the common people during and after the Partition. Many have written about the terrible experiences of many women. The worst victims of the Partition were women. Many of them were raped. Many were kidnapped and sold. They were forced to live a new life with strangers in a strange land. Somehow many of them suffered indescribable difficulties. But some adjusted with the new situation.

The governments of India and Pakistan did not bother to realise the complexities of human relations. Both governments decided to exchange women belonging to their respective countries – the Pakistani women in India had to go to Pakistan and Indian women in Pakistan had to come to India.

Following this, a countrywide search was made to locate the women abducted from both sides. Those who were found were sent back to their countries. Nobody bothered to seek the opinion of the women involved in this exchange. Thus women were denied to take decisions about their own lives.

According to statistics, a total of 30,000 women were rescued this way – 22,000 women from India and 8000 women from Pakistan. This rescue operation lasted until 1954.

Question 14.
Show the relevance of the concept of ‘Preserving the honour and dignity of the society’ during Partition with appropriate examples.
Answer:
Many have written about the terrible experiences of many.women. The worst victims of the Partition were women. Many of them were raped. Many were kidnapped and sold. They were forced to live a new life with strangers in a strange land. Somehow many of them suffered indescribably difficulties. But some adjusted with the new situation.

In the dangerous times of Partition the concept of ‘Preserving the honour and dignity of the society’ came into existence. Historians say the following:

• Honour and Dignity are often related to the idea of male domination. This concept has its origin from the feeling that ‘zamin’ and ‘zanan’ (land and woman) are owned by men. This concept was in existence in the village communities of North India from time immemorial.
• According to this concept, masculinity consists of the ability of a male in protecting his land and woman. There were plenty of quarrels about land and women among men. Women also subscribed to this view.
• Very often men killed their women-wives, daughters, sisters, etc. – if they felt that these women would be taken away by enemies. This is some kind of honour killing.

Question 15.
Even amidst the devilish acts of cruelty during Partition, there were still some people with virtues of sympathy, humanity and friendship. Explain with examples.
Answer:
Historians have unearthed many instances when people helped one another during the Partition, even when they belonged to different religions. A good example is that of Dr. Khush Dev Singh. He was a Sikh. He worked at Dharampur (Himachal Pradesh) as a specialist of TB (tuberculosis). He continued working day and night, giving food and medicine, helping people of different communities. The faith of the Muslims in Dr. Khush Dev Singh of Dharampur was like the faith the Muslims of Delhi had in Gandhi. One of the riot victims, Mohammed Omar, wrote to Khush Dev Singh a letter. He said that only in his protection he would feel secure and so he should be given a place in his hospital.

We learn more about the relief work done by Khush Dev Singh from his memoirs. In his book called “Love is Stronger than Hatred – 1947 – a Reminiscence” Khush Dev wrote, “What I did were my simple endeavours to do my duty as a human being to my fellow human beings.”

He visited Karachi twice in 1949. He has described his experiences in his book. His old friends and those who were helped by him spent some hours with him at the Karachi airport. There were also six police constables. They accompanied him to the aeroplane and saluted him. Khush Dev Singh says that his eyes were filled at the love shown by them.

Question 16.
What is the importance of oral historical tradition in the case of the Partition? What are its advantages and disadvantages?
Answer:
Partition was not a merely a political event. It has many levels of meaning. We can know a lot of things from those who experienced Partition and who survived it. It is memories and experiences that bring out the essence of an incident. Therefore the oral. tradition has a lot of importance in recreating the Partition and its repercussions.

• Personal reminiscences are very important. They help us to understand the experiences of the people in a better way. They show what exactly happened during the Partition and thereafter.
• Government documents give mainly information about the schemes and policies they carry out. We have different reports, files and letters from higher officials of those times.
• They throw light into the meetings between the British government and the different political parties. But these documents will not tell us how the decision to partition the country affected the people in general.
• The experiences of the poor and powerless people, help to increase the boundaries of historical research.
• Oral tradition is not the history of the rich and the famous. It is the experience of the marginalised which is usually ignored by mainstream history.

In spite of all these advantages, many historians do not approve an oral history tradition. They point out the following reasons:

1. The information got from oral tradition does not have precision.
2. The time mentioned by it is often not correct.
3. In oral tradition, generalization is impossible. Individual experiences are special and unique.
4. It is related to only external happenings.
5. It is limited to small incidents. Such incidents cannot explain the complex nature of History.
6. The basis of oral tradition is memory. Because of this necessary details may not be available. Often what is said is unbelievable.

Even if many people speak against oral tradition it has its own importance. When we study about things like the Holocaust in Germany, oral history is important in knowing about the miseries of people. Historians can compare written records with oral history to arrive at the truth. It is wrong to say that oral history is simply connected with external matters. The experiences of the people during Partition talk about the central story, and not external things.
To know about different things, different sources are needed.

We may know the number of abducted and rescued women from the government records of India and Pakistan. But only from their experiences will we know the mental and physical pain ad misery they suffered during their abduction and also rescue.