Humanism Notes Class 10 History Chapter 1 Kerala Syllabus Questions and Answers

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SSLC History Chapter 1 Notes Pdf English Medium Humanism

SCERT Class 10 Social Science History Chapter 1 Humanism Notes Question Answer Kerala Syllabus

Class 10 History Chapter 1 Notes Kerala Syllabus Humanism

Question 1.
Evaluate the significance of the statement that the Renaissance was a period of transition from the medieval to the modern.
Answer:
From the 14^th century onward, a series of changes took place in the social, economic, and political spheres of Europe. Along with the influence of the Greco-Roman cultures of ancient Europe, a tendency to move away from the ideas that existed in the medieval times also gained strength. These changes were particularly evident in Italy, which was part of the ancient Roman civilisation. Historians termed these changes the ‘Renaissance.’ The Renaissance is considered as a period of transformation from the medieval feudalism to the modern age. The word “Renaissance” means “rebirth.” It denotes the revival of ancient Greco-Roman culture, which began around the 14^th century. During the Middle Ages, people focused mainly on religion and followed traditional beliefs. But in the Renaissance, there was a revival of art, science, and learning. People started questioning old ideas, exploring discoveries, and emphasising human potential.

Question 2.
Observe the map given below. Identify the cities that existed in medieval Italy.

Answer:

1. Florence
2. Milan
3. Geona
4. Pisa
5. Venice
6. Parma
7. Naples
8. Rome

Question 3.
Italian cities were wealthier compared to other European cities. Describe the circumstances that led to this.
Answer:

• They were more independent, wealthy and dynamic.
• Traders in these cities were well aware of banking and insurance. Some of them had expertise in technical matters of trade, such as bookkeeping.
• Many of them had become extremely wealthy through trade.
• Italian cities got acquainted with the cultures, cities, and lives of the people in the Eastern world. This accelerated the growth of Italian cities. As a result of trade links with the Islamic Empire and the Byzantine empire, enormous wealth flowed into the Italian Cities.
• Merchants in Italian cities gained a monopoly in the trade between the East and West in the Mediterranean.

Question 4.
Discuss the impact brought about by the outbreak of the plague in 14^th century in various fields in Europe.
Answer:
The Bubonic Plague, which erupted in the mid-14^th century, several affected the Italian cities. This catastrophic event, known as the ‘Black Death,’ claimed the lives of thousands, resulting in a severe shortage in labour. This paved the way for the decline of medieval feudalism, which was heavily reliant on the agricultural sector. Furthermore, it facilitated the emergence of a new commercial middle class. When traditional medicines failed to fight the plague, people began to explore the medical sciences of ancient Greece and Rome. The terrors of the plague prompted human beings to contemplate the fleeting nature of life, seek wellness, and focus on their well-being. This introspection paved the way for the emergence of humanism.

Question 5.
Locate Constantinople on the map. Discuss its geographical significance.
Answer:

Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey) is located between Europe and Asia, on the Bosporus Strait. Its geographical significance comes from its position as a bridge between the two continents, making it a key center for trade and culture. It controlled major trade routes between Europe, Asia, and the Middle East, helping it grows into a powerful and wealthy city. Its location also made it a strong defensive city, protected by water on three sides.

Question 6.
Assess the impact of the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks on the intellectual landscape of Italy.
Answer:
In 1453, the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. This city was a center of many scholars who possessed manuscripts of ancient Greco-Roman literary works. In the aftermath of the Turkish conquest, these scholars migrated to Italian cities, bringing their manuscripts with them. As a result, research and studies, previously confined to universities during the Middle Ages, began to spread to libraries. The convergence of wealth and political freedom created a fertile ground for artistic innovation and cultural experimentation. Consequently, novel ideas began to emerge in the cultural and intellectual spheres.

Question 7.
How did the emergence of humanism impact the course of world.
Answer:
The emergence of humanism brought a significant change in the way people thought about life, knowledge, and society. Before humanism, most knowledge was controlled by the Church, but humanist ideas encouraged people to think logically and question existing beliefs. This led to the growth of education, with more focus on subjects like history, literature, science, and philosophy, resulting in the rise of universities and schools. Humanism also influenced art and literature, inspiring famous artists like Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo to create realistic works, while writers like Shakespeare and Dante focused on human emotions and experiences. In science, humanist thinking helped scientists like Galileo and Copernicus make groundbreaking discoveries, leading to the Scientific Revolution. Additionally, humanism promoted ideas of democracy, freedom, and human rights, which later influenced governments where people had more say. The curiosity sparked by humanism also led to the Age of Exploration, where explorers like Columbus and Vasco da Gama discovered new lands, connecting different parts of the world. Overall, humanism played a crucial role in shaping the modern world by encouraging education, innovation, and individual rights.

Question 8.
Look at the pictures given here and identify the characteristic features of Renaissance paintings reflected in them.


This is a depiction of “ Agony in the Garden” by Giovanni Bellini, a renowned Italian Renaissance painter. The scene illustrates Jesus Christ kneeling in prayer on the Mount of Olives while his disciples sleep nearby. In the background, a group of Roman soldiers can be seen approaching to apprehend Jesus Christ.

This is the renowned diptych oil painting by the Italian Renaissance painter Piero della Francesca, titled “Diptych of Federico da Montefeltro and Battista Sforza.”
Answer:
The paintings reflect key features of Renaissance art. One important feature is realism, as the people in the paintings look natural with detailed facial features, clothing, and backgrounds. Another feature is perspective, which creates a sense of depth, making the background appear far away instead of flat. Renaissance art also focused on human emotions and individuality, showing expressions and feelings rather than stiff, lifeless figures. The use of light and shadow (chiaroscuro) adds depth and makes the figures appear more three-dimensional. Additionally, Renaissance artists were inspired by Greek and Roman art, which can be seen in the balanced composition and realistic human forms. The paintings also show a mix of religious and secular themes, as one painting depicts a biblical scene while the other features real historical figures. These elements together make Renaissance art more lifelike, expressive, and advanced compared to medieval paintings.

Question 9.
Discuss the features of Renaissance painting and prepare a note.
Answer:

1. Landscapes.
2. The use of colour to illustrate light and spatial depth
3. Realistic depiction of the human body.
4. The use of oil paints.
5. Portraits.
6. The representation of divine figures in idealised human forms.

Question 10.
Identify and list the common features of Renaissance paintings and sculptures.
Answer:

1. Humanism
2. Influence of Greco-Roman styles
3. Anatomical Accuracy: Artists studied the human body, making sculptures and paintings more accurate in muscle and body movement
4. Detailed Backgrounds and Landscapes: Nature, buildings, and realistic settings were carefully painted to enhance storytelling
5. Human Emotion and Individuality: Paintings and sculptures show real emotions, unique facial features, and human experiences

Question 11.
Prepare a digital album describing the influence of humanism on Renaissance art.
Answer:
(Hints: Based on the following hints given below, prepare a digital album)
Digital Album: The Influence of Humanism on Renaissance Art
Title: The Influence of Humanism on Renaissance Art
Subtitle: Exploring the Artistic Revolution of the Renaissance
Suggested Cover Image: The School of Athens by Raphael
Introduction: Humanism shifted art from religious themes to realistic, human-centered depictions. Renaissance artists focused on depth, perspective, and emotions.
Realism & Naturalism: Artists studied anatomy and nature, making figures lifelike. Examples: Mona Lisa, The Birth of Venus.
Perspective & Depth: Linear perspective created three-dimensional effects in paintings. Examples: The School of Athens, The Last Supper.
Human Emotion & Individuality: Portraits captured expressions and personality. Examples: David (Michelangelo), Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione.
Greco-Roman Influence: Inspired by classical art, emphasising balance and beauty. Examples: The Birth of Venus, David.
Secular Themes & Portraits: Focus on real people, scholars, and rulers alongside religious themes. Examples: Amolfini Portrait, Portrait of a Man.
Conclusion: Humanism transformed art, making it realistic, expressive, and innovative.
Quote: “A man paints with his brain, not with his hands”. – Michelangelo.

Question 12.
“Every prince ought to desire to earn the reputation of being merciful, and not be cruel; at the same time, he should also be careful that no one else misuses that mercy. A prince, therefore, should not care for the ill repute of being cruel while ensuring solidarity and loyalty among the subjects.” Machiavelli’s perspective about a king is given above. Based on this, discuss the ideas put forward by Machiavelli about monarchy. Examine to what extent humanism is reflected in this.
Answer:
Machiavelli’s Ideas on Monarchy and Humanism
Machiavelli believed a ruler should be strong and practical rather than overly kind. In The Prince, he argued that:

• Power & Control: A king must ensure stability.
• Fear vs. Love: Being feared is better than being loved.
• Practicality Over Morality: A ruler should act based on reality, not just ideals.
• Avoiding Weakness: Too much mercy can lead to disorder.

Humanism in Machiavelli’s Ideas:

• Focused on human intelligence and reason, not religious rules.
• Encouraged rulers to use strategy and real-world experience over morality.
• His ideas reflect humanism by emphasising logic, leadership, and human decision-making over divine authority.

Question 13.
Prepare an essay on the topic ‘Humanism and Renaissance Literature’.
Answer:
Humanism and Renaissance Literature
The Renaissance (14^th – 17^th century) brought a shift in literature through humanism, which focused on human potential, emotions, and real-life experiences.
How Humanism Influenced Renaissance Literature:
Use of Vernacular Languages: Writers used local languages instead of Latin. (Example: Dante’s Divine Comedy)
Focus on Human Emotions & Individuality: Literature explored personal struggles and feelings. (Example: Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet)
Realistic Characters & Stories: Writers portrayed human strengths and weaknesses.
Political & Social Ideas: Some works discussed leadership and power. (Example: Machiavelli’s The Prince)
Printing Press Impact: Helped spread knowledge and books to more people.
Conclusion: Humanism made literature more realistic, emotional, and people-centered, shaping modern storytelling and ideas.

Question 14.
Elucidate the role of Renaissance in making historiography scientific.
Answer:
The Renaissance made historiography more scientific by introducing a rational and evidence-based
approach. Historians Flavio Biondo and Leonardo Bruni classified history into Ancient, Medieval, and Modem periods, marking a shift from religious narratives to structured analysis. The transition from theological to human-centred explanations replaced divine interpretations with a focus on human actions. Archaeological evidence, inscriptions, and manuscripts gained importance, emphasising factual accuracy. Humanism promoted critical thinking, replacing myths with logical inquiry. Thinkers like Machiavelli applied analytical methods, making history more systematic, secular, and evidence-driven. This transformation laid the foundation for modem historiography.

Question 15.
Conduct a panel discussion on the contribution made by Renaissance science to the progress of modern society.
Answer:
(Hints: Based on the following hints, conduct a panel discussion in your class.)
Moderator: Welcome! Let’s discuss how Renaissance scienee shaped modem society.
Student 1: Copernicus and Galileo proved that the Earth orbits the Sun, leading to modem astronomy.
Student 2: Vesalius improved medical knowledge by studying the human body, helping modem doctors.
Student 3: Newton discovered the laws of motion and gravity, which are still used in physics and space travel.
Student 4: Leonardo da Vinci designed early flying machines and studied anatomy, inspiring modem inventions.
Moderator: The Renaissance helped in astronomy, medicine, physics, and engineering, shaping the world today. Thank you!

Question 16.
The influence of humanism became the reason for Reformation; justify this statement.
Answer:
Humanism played a big role in the Reformation because it encouraged people to think critically and question traditional beliefs. Humanist scholars like Erasmus wrote satirical works that criticised the Catholic Church’s practices. Other reformers, such as John Wycliffe, Jan Hus, and Savonarola, also pointed out problems in the Church, especially the sale of indulgences. The Renaissance focus on education and individual thinking led Martin Luther to challenge the Church by writing his Ninety-Five Theses. Although he initially wanted only a debate, his ideas spread quickly, leading to the Protestant Reformation. Additionally, many rulers supported the Reformation because they wanted to reduce the Church’s power over taxation and appointments. Leaders like Zwingli, Calvin, and Henry VIII helped establish new branches of Christianity, further spreading the Reformation. Overall, humanism encouraged people to think for themselves, leading them to question and eventually reform the Church.

Question 17.
Compare and contrast reformation and counter-reformation.
Answer:

Aspect	Reformation	Counter-Reformation
Reason	Started to protest against some practices in the Catholic Church.	Reform movement within the catholic church.
Leaders	Martin Luther, John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, King Henry VIII.	Catholic Church leaders, including the Pope and Ignatius Loyola.
Actions Taken	Luther wrote the Ninety-Five Theses, Protestant churches were formed, and rulers reduced the Church’s power.	The Council of Trent was held, indulgences were banned, and missionary work was encouraged.
Main Goal	To reform the Church and reduce the Pope’s power, leading to the creation of Protestant churches.	To strengthen the Catholic Church and stop people from leaving it.

Question 18.
Conduct a seminar in the class on the topic “Influence of Renaissance oil different spheres”. Areas to be considered:
Art, Literature, Religion, Politics, History, Science
Answer:
(Hints)
Seminar Plan: Influence of Renaissance on Different Spheres
1. Introduction

• Greet the audience and introduce the topic.
• Briefly explain what the Renaissance was (14^th – 17^th century revival of art, culture, and learning).
• Highlight its impact on various aspects of society.

2. Influence on Different Spheres
Answer:
A. Art

• The Renaissance led to a shift from religious themes to realism and human emotions in paintings and sculptures.
• Famous artists: Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael.
• Example: Mona Lisa (Da Vinci) and Sistine Chapel Ceiling (Michelangelo).

B. Literature

• Writers moved from religious texts to humanist themes.
• Use of vernacular languages instead of Latin.
• Key figures: William Shakespeare, Dante Alighieri, Geoffrey Chaucer.
• Example: Shakespeare’s Hamlet explored human emotions and philosophy.

C. Religion

• Rise of Reformation due to critical thinking and questioning of Church practices.
• Martin Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses (1517) led to Protestantism.
• Counter-Reformation by the Catholic Church to address corruption.

D. Politics

• Growth of nation-states and decline of feudalism.
• Political thinkers like Niccolo Machiavelli wrote The Prince, advising rulers on power and strategy.
• The monarchs gained more control, reducing the power of the Pope.

E. History

• Historians started focusing on human-centered history rather than just religious chronicles.
• Francesco Petrarch, the “Father of Humanism,” emphasised classical texts.

F. Science

• The Renaissance promoted scientific inquiry and discoveries.
• Copernicus proposed the heliocentric theory’, challenging the Church’s views.
• Galileo and Newton advanced physics and astronomy.

3. Conclusion

• Summarise key points on how the Renaissance transformed society.
• Emphasise its lasting impact on modern art, literature, politics, and science.

4. Q&A Session

Std 10 History Chapter 1 Notes Kerala Syllabus – Extended Activities

Question 1.
Prepare a flip magazine including the contributions of the Renaissance period in art and literature and exhibit it in the classroom.
Answer:
(Hints)
Steps to Prepare a Flip Magazine on Renaissance Art & Literature

1. Cover Page:

• Title: “Renaissance: A Golden Era of Art & Literature”
• Add colorful pictures of famous paintings and books from the period.

2. Art Section:

• Introduction: Explain how Renaissance art focused on realism, human emotions, and perspective.
  Famous Artists & Their Works:
• Leonardo da Vinci – Mona Lisa, The Last Supper
• Michelangelo – Sistine Chapel Ceiling, David
• Raphael – School of Athens

3. Literature Section:

• Introduction: Renaissance literature shifted from religious to humanist themes.
  Famous Writers & Their Works:
• William Shakespeare – Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet
• Dante Alighieri – The Divine Comedy
• Geoffrey Chaucer – The Canterbury Tales
• Impact: Use of vernacular languages, storytelling, and character depth.

4. Conclusion:

• Explain how Renaissance art and literature influenced modem culture.
• Add a fun fact or a quiz to engage readers.

5. Presentation:

• Use colorful charts, pictures, and captions.
• Organise content neatly with flip pages for easy reading.
• Exhibit it in the classroom for everyone to explore!

Question 2.
Organise a poster exhibition on the topic ‘Inventions in the field of science in the Renaissance period and the contemporary world.’
Answer:
(Hints: Collect the given images and prepare a poster exhibition)
Renaissance Period Inventions (14th – 17th Century )

• Printing Press – Image of Johannes Gutenberg’s printing press (helped spread knowledge).
• Heliocentric Model – Diagram of Copernicus’s model of the solar system (Sun at the center).
• Telescope – Picture of Galileo Galilei and his telescope (used to observe planets).
• Anatomy Studies – Leonardo da Vinci’s human anatomy sketches.

Contemporary World Inventions

• Modem Telescope – Hubble Space Telescope (comparison with Galileo’s telescope).
• DNA Structure – Double-helix model by Watson & Crick.
• Modern Printing – Digital printing press vs. Gutenberg’s press.
• Medical Advancements – MRI, X-ray machines, or robotic surgery.

Question 3.
Bhakti Movement in India was a protest like the Reformation in Europe. Discuss the similarities and differences between these two, and prepare a note.
Answer:
Similarities Between Bhakti Movement & Reformation

• Both were protested religious practices: Bhakti Movement opposed caste rules & rituals, Reformation criticised Church’s corruption.
• Direct connection with God: Bhakti saints rejected priestly rituals; Refonners like Luther opposed the Pope’s authority.
• Use of local languages: Bhakti saints preached in regional languages; Reformers translated the Bible for common people.
• Led to new religious paths: the Bhakti Movement influenced Sikhism; the Reformation led to Protestant Christianity.

Differences between Bhakti Movement & Reformation

Aspects	Bhakti Movement (India)	Reformation (Europe)
Time Period	7th – 17th century	16th century
Main Cause	Opposed caste discrimination and idol worship	Opposed Church corruption and sale of indulgences.
Key Leaders	Kabir, Mirabai, Guru Nanak, Tulsidas	Martin Luther, John Calvin, King Henry VIII

Question 4.
Prepare a digital atlas by marking the important European countries that became the platform for the Renaissance and the Reformation.
Answer:

Humanism Class 10 Notes Pdf

• The word “Renaissance” means “rebirth.” It denotes the revival of ancient Greco-Roman culture, which began around the 14^th century.
• The Renaissance is considered as a period of transformation from the medieval feudalism to the modern age.
• The two most important civilisations that existed in ancient Europe were the Greek and Roman civilisations. They are known as classical civilisations.
• The Crusades that took place during the medieval period facilitated cultural exchange between the East and the West.
• The Bubonic Plague, which erupted in the mid-14th century, severely affected Italian cities. This catastrophic event, known as the ‘Black Death.
• The Middle Ages were predominantly influenced by the philosophical school of thought known as scholasticism, which was deeply rooted in Christian theology.
• The Arabs played a significant role in disseminating the ideas of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle throughout Europe.
• Humanists produced works in regional languages and created paintings and sculptures in the Greco- Roman style.
• Humanism later became a source and inspiration for transformative changes across various spheres, including painting, architecture, literature, politics, history, science, and religion.
• Humanistic ideals were reflected profoundly in Renaissance paintings. Sculpture was another equally notable field of Renaissance art. Donatello was one of the most important sculptors of the Renaissance period.
• Architecture was another field that witnessed transformation besides painting and sculpture. Filippo Brunelleschi set a new style in architecture.
• The classification of history into three distinct periods:
  • the Ancient Period, spanning up to the 5th century CE;
  • the Medieval Period, extending from the 5th to the 15th century;
  • and the Modern Period, encompassing the era thereafter
• The Renaissance laid the foundation for the evolution of modern science.
• The revolutionary discoveries of Copernicus were further elucidated and expanded upon by Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler.
• The Reformation, which originated in Germany, soon spread to other European kingdoms.

INTRODUCTION

The Renaissance was a period of cultural, artistic, and intellectual rebirth that revived Greco-Roman ideas and bridged the gap between the Middle Ages and modem times. Rooted in humanism, it emphasised human potential, creativity, and reason, shifting focus from religious authority to individual achievement. Emerging in Italy, it spread across Europe, influencing art, literature, science, and historiography. Great thinkers like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Shakespeare, Copernicus, and Galileo reshaped their fields. The Reformation, influenced by Renaissance ideas, led to major religious reforms. This chapter, ‘Humanism,’ explores the Renaissance’s impact on humanism, art, literature, science, historiography, and religion, shaping the world as we know it today.

Renaissance

• The word “Renaissance” means “rebirth.” It denotes the revival of ancient Greco-Roman culture, which began around the 14^th century.
• The Renaissance is considered as a period of transformation from the medieval feudalism to the modern age.
• The two most important civilisations that existed in ancient Europe were Greek and Roman civilisations. They are known as classical civilisations.

Renaissance in Italy

• The commercialisation that occurred in Europe by the 11th century led to the disintegration of the medieval feudal system and the decline of religious supremacy.
• Several wealthy families also emerged in Italy.
• The Crusades that took place during the medieval period facilitated cultural exchange between the East and the West.
• The Bubonic Plague, which erupted in the mid-14th century, severel affected the Italian cities. This catastrophic event, known as the ‘Black Death.
• The prosperity, political liberty, and social unity of the cities fostered civic sense and self-respect among people.

Human beings at the center

• The Middle Ages were predominantly influenced by the philosophical school of thought known as scholasticism, which was deeply rooted in Christian theology.
• Humanists highlighted the uniqueness, emotions, capabilities, literary expression, and communication skills inherent in humanity.
• The Arabs played a significant role in disseminating the ideas of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle throughout Europe.
• Humanists produced works in regional languages and created paintings and sculptures in the Greco- Roman style.
• Humanism later became a source and inspiration for transformative changes across various spheres, including painting, architecture, literature, politics, history, science, and religion.

Renaissance Art

• Middle age paintings tend to emphasise spiritual themes, such as angels and heavenly realms, whereas Renaissance paintings focus on the beauty of the human form, originality and a naturalistic use of colours.
• Humanistic ideals were reflected profoundly in Renaissance paintings. Painters of the time presented human forms with remarkable accuracy, clarity, and meticulous attention to detail in their works.
• Sculpture was another equally notable field of Renaissance art. Donatello was one of the most important sculptors of the Renaissance period.
• Architecture was another field that witnessed transformation besides painting and sculpture. Filippo Brunelleschi set a new style in architecture.

Renaissance Literature

• Renaissance writers gave importance to individual liberty and secular values.
• The basic characteristic of Renaissance literature was its breaking away from the scholasticism of the Middle Ages.
• Printing played a significant role in popularising literature during the Renaissance period.

Renaissance and Historiography

• The classification divides history into three distinct periods:
• the Ancient Period, spanning up to the 5th century CE;
• the Medieval Period, extending from the 5th to the 15th century;
• and the Modern Period, encompassing the era thereafter.
• This classification emerged during the Renaissance period. It was introduced by two Italian historians, Flavio Biondo and Leonardo Bruni.

Renaissance and Science

• The Renaissance laid the foundation for the evolution of modern science.
• Scientists put forward a groundbreaking view that material forces govern planetary motions.
• The revolutionary discoveries of Copernicus were further elucidated and expanded upon by Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler.
• Galileo Galilei made seminal discoveries, including satellites of Jupiter and rings of Saturn.
• The Renaissance also witnessed significant advancements in the field of medicine, particularly anatomy.

The Reformation

• The influence of the Renaissance extended to the realm of religion also in Europe.
• The universities of Germany, particularly Wittenberg University, where Martin Luther taught, played an important role in laying the groundwork for the Reformation.
• The Reformation, which originated in Germany, soon spread to other European kingdoms.
• Following the Reformation, the Catholic Church initiated efforts to reform itself, a movement known as the Counter-Reformation.

RENAISSANCE

• The word “Renaissance” means “rebirth.” It denotes the revival of ancient Greco-Roman culture, which began around the 14^th century.
• The Renaissance is considered as a period of transformation from the medieval feudalism to the modern age.
• The two most important civilisations that existed in ancient Europe were Greek and Roman civilisations.

They are known as classical civilisations From the 14^th century onwards, a series of changes took place in the social, economic, and political spheres of Europe. Along with the influence of the Greco-Roman cultures of ancient Europe, a tendency to move away from the ideas that existed in the medieval times also gained strength.

Characteristic features of these changes:

• Humanistic Perspective (Humanism)
• Growth of urban life
• Progress of trade
• Rise of national state
• Individual liberty
• Rationalism
• Spread of secular values
• Monetary economy
• Importance gained by regional languages
• Changes in the realms of art and science

Greco-Roman Civilisations
The two most important civilisations that existed in ancient Europe were the Greek and Roman civilisations. They are known as classical civilisations. The Greek civilisation was from 12^th to 4^th century BCE. The Roman civilisation existed from the 7^th century BCE to the 5^th century CE.

These changes were particularly evident in Italy, which was part of the ancient Roman civilisation. Historians termed these changes the ’Renaissance.’ The Renaissance is considered as a period of transformation from the medieval feudalism to the modern age. The word “Renaissance” means “rebirth.” It denotes the revival of ancient Greco-Roman culture, which began around the 14^th century.

RENAISSANCE IN ITALY

• The commercialisation that occurred in Europe by the 11^th century led to the disintegration of the medieval feudal system and the decline of religious supremacy.
• Several wealthy families also emerged in Italy.
• The Crusades that took place during the medieval period facilitated cultural exchange between the East and the West.
• The Bubonic Plague, which erupted in the mid-14th century, several affected the Italian cities. This catastrophic event, known as the ‘Black Death’.
• The prosperity, political liberty, and social unity of the cities fostered civic sense and self-respect among people.

Florence, Pisa, Naples, Milan, Parma, etc., were the major cities in medieval Italy. Cities in Italy were different from the rest in Europe. The reasons is that:

• They were more independent, wealthy and dynamic.
• Traders in these cities were well aware of banking and insurance. Some of them had expertise in technical matters of trade, such as bookkeeping.
• Many of them had become extremely wealthy through trade.

The commercialisation that occurred in Europe by the 11th century led to the disintegration of the medieval feudal system and the decline of religious supremacy. This led to the emergence and domination of the new wealthy class. As a result, several wealthy families also emerged in Italy.

Bookkeeping
Detailed recording of the income and expenditure of an establishment on a daily basis ¡s called bookkeeping. Bookkeeping is the first step in accounting.

The Crusades that took place during the medieval period facilitated cultural exchange between the East and the West. Italian cities got acquainted with the cultures, cities, and liv es of the people in the Eastern world. This accelerated the growth of Italian cities. Merchants in Italian cities gained a monopoly in the trade between the East and West in the Mediterranean.

Italian Families	Cities
Medici	Florence
Sforza	Milan
Famese	Parma
Orsini	Naples
Visconti	Milan

The Crusades: The wars fought between believers of Islam and Christianity over Jerusalem, which was considered a holy land by both, are known as Crusades. The crusades that took place from the 11th to 13th century had a profound impact on the political, social and economic lives in both Europe and Asia.

The Bubonic Plague, which erupted in the mid-14th century, several affected the Italian cities. This catastrophic event, known as the ‘Black Death,’ claimed the lives of thousands, resulting in a severe shortage in labour.

Black Death
The Black Death is the epidemic that ravaged Europe between 1347 and 1351. Black boils appeared on those who were affected by the disease. That is why the disease is known as Black Death. This epidemic spread through the fleas carried by rats that reached European ports via merchant ships.

• This paved the way for the decline of medieval feudalism, which was heavily reliant on the agricultural sector. Furthermore, it facilitated the emergence of a new commercial middle class.
• When traditional medicines failed to fight the plague, people began to explore the medical sciences of ancient Greece and Rome. The terrors of the plague prompted human beings to contemplate the fleeting nature of life, seek wellness, and focus on their own well-being. This introspection paved the way for the emergence of humanism.

Revived interest in the concepts of law and order and governance that had flourished in the ancient Roman Empire began to spread throughout Italy. A section of the population well-versed in ancient Roman law and the Latin language turned their attention to commercial pursuits. This, in turn, sparked a renewed interest in classical languages, literature, institutions and antiquity. Each city aspired to become a centre of art and literature. Under the patronage of rulers and clergy, people sought out, collected, and preserved the remnants of ancient Rome, including paintings, manuscripts, and architectural remains. The rulers realised that, rather than waging wars, commissioning grand buildings and fostering art and literature would be a better way to leave a lasting legacy in the minds of the people.

• Wealthy patrons beautified their parish churches and actively promoted the construction of monasteries and nunneries as well as cathedrals.
• In Italian cities such as Florence, Milan, Rome, and Venice, patronage of the arts was considered a civic responsibility.

In 1453, the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. This city was a centre of many scholars who possessed manuscripts of ancient Greco-Roman literary works. In the aftermath of the Turkish conquest, these scholars migrated to Italian cities, bringing their manuscripts with them. As a result, research and studies, previously confined to universities during the Middle Ages, began to spread to libraries. The convergence of wealth and political freedom created a fertile ground for artistic innovation and cultural experimentation. Consequently, novel ideas began to emerge in the cultural and intellectual spheres.

A Colonial Perspective of European Renaissance: Several arguments have emerged of late challenging the conventional view that the Renaissance originated in Europe. Works like Stolen Legacy by George James, Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilisation by Martin Bernal present alternative perspectives. They are of the view that colonial historians have perpetuated a Eurocentric narrative, portraying Europe as the sole hub of civilisation. They dismissed the contributions of other cultures. According to these critics, this biased approach has led to the marginalisation of non-European cultures, implying that only Europeans are civilised while others are uncivilised.

HUMAN BEINGS AT THE CENTRE

• The Middle Ages were predominantly influenced by the philosophical school of thought known as scholasticism, which was deeply rooted in Christian theology.
• Humanists highlighted the uniqueness, emotions, capabilities, literary expression, and communication skills inherent in humanity.
• The Arabs played a significant role in disseminating the ideas of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle throughout Europe.
• Humanists produced works in regional languages and created paintings and sculptures in the Greco- Roman style.
• Humanism later became a source and inspiration for transformative changes across various spheres, including painting, architecture, literature, politics, history, science, and religion.

Scholasticism encouraged knowledge and research, and it prioritised the divine and the afterlife. The concept of Humanism emerged as a departure from Christian theology, emphasising the significance of human experience, worldly life and rational inquiry. Humanists highlighted the uniqueness, emotions, capabilities, literary expression, and communication skills inherent in humanity. This paradigm shift was founded on a transformation from a theological perspective to a human-centered outlook. Humanism also accommodated dissenting voices and criticism, questioning the authority of religious dogma and domination.

During this period, people avidly read ancient Greco-Roman works. Ancient Greco-Roman civilisations served as their primary source of inspiration, and the humanists’ perspective was distinctly different. Greco- Roman art depicted Gods, the wealthy, and the powerful in all their beauty and splendour. However, Renaissance art represented human beings in all their naturalness. The numerous works of art and literature produced during the Renaissance period bear testimony to this shift. Humanism later became a source and inspiration for transformative changes across various spheres, including painting, architecture, literature, politics, history, science, and religion. The Renaissance, in essence, embodies these changes.

Aristotle was a philosopher who lived in ancient Greece. His ideas paved the background for new questions and debates in the Renaissance period. His works, translated into Latin and regional languages in the 12^th and 13^th centuries, were widely disseminated throughout Europe. The significance Aristotle placed on the pursuit of truth, coupled with the profound depth of his scholarly endeavors, accounted for the immense interest in his ideas.

RENAISSANCE ART

• Middle age paintings tend to emphasise spiritual themes, such as angels and heavenly realms, whereas Renaissance paintings focus on the beauty of the human form, originality and a naturalistic use of colours.
• Humanistic ideals were refected profoundly in Renaissance paintings. Painters of the time presented human forms with remarkable accuracy, clarity, and meticulous attention to detail in their works.
• Sculpture was another equally notable field of Renaissance art. Donatello was one of the most important sculptors of the Renaissance period.
• Architecture was another field that witnessed transformation besides painting and sculpture. Filippo Brunelleschi set a new style in architecture.

The shift in artistic focus was a hallmark of the Renaissance period, during which fields like painting, sculpture, and architecture underwent profound transformations. Florence, one of the major commercial centres in Europe, was also the centre of Renaissance in Italy.

PAINTING

• Humanistic ideals were reflected profoundly in Renaissance paintings. Painters of the time presented human forms with remarkable accuracy, clarity, and meticulous attention to detail in their works.
• The knowledge they had acquired about human anatomy facilitated this artistic achievement.

Moreover, painters emphasised rationalism and human emotions, attributing significance to the values of this world. With the influence of humanism, artworks became increasingly precise and realistic. Painters often selected themes that emphasised theological significance for their works. However, Renaissance paintings had certain other distinctive features as well:

• Landscapes
• The use of colour to illustrate light and spatial depth
• Realistic depiction of the human body
• The use of oil paint
• Portraits
• The representation of divine figures in idealised human forms

The influence of Greco-Roman art was’ first evident in Giotto’s works. However, it was Masaccio, a painter who emerged later created a profound impact on all artists who came later. His wall paintings, characterised by their round shape and seeming to protrude from the surface, showcased human figures. Engaging in everyday life experiences. The Last Supper and Mona Lisa are world-famous paintings by Leonardo da Vinci. These paintings speak of the unique way in which da Vinci harmonises colour, shadow and light. He was a versatile genius who scientifically studied the human body.

• In the ‘Last Supper,’ emotions like surprise, fear and guilt of Christ’s disciples are vividly etched as Christ reveals that one of them betrayed him. It is widely acknow ledged that the enigmatic expressions of the Mona Lisa conceal many unanswered questions masterfully embedded by Leonardo da Vinci.
• The paintings done on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel at the Vatican, along with The Last Judgment, have cemented Michelangelo’s status as an immortal artist. His works predominantly feature powerful and graceful human forms.
• Other notable painters of the Renaissance period include Titian and Raphael. Raphael portrayed humans as wise, moderate, and dignified. In their paintings, beauty and ideas were given equal importance.

SCULPTURE
Sculpture was another equally notable field of Renaissance art. Donatello was one of the most important sculptors of the Renaissance period.

He liberated the art of sculpture from the medieval Gothic style, giving his works greater power and individuality. His iconic bronze sculpture, David, showcases a youthful figure standing with his weight shifted onto one leg. Another notable work, ‘Gattamelata’, depicts a soldier sitting on horseback, evoking the cavalrymen of ancient Rome. Through this masterpiece, Donatello immortalised a secular hero.

Michelangelo’s sculptures, which depicted Gods in human forms, deviated significantly from the traditional ancient Greco-Roman style. His renowned works, such as the ‘Pieta’, which portrays the Virgin Mary with Jesus Christ on her lap and the majestic sculpture of ‘David’, have cemented his legacy as an immortal artist.

ARCHITECTURE
Architecture was another field that witnessed transformation besides painting and sculpture. Filippo Brunelleschi set a new style in architecture.

Quite different from the Gothic architectural style of the medieval period, the influence of ancient Greco-Roman (classical) style is evident in the Cathedral he built in Florence. The lofty towers found in Gothic style were replaced with domes (Dumo). Later, in the St. Peter’s Basilica, built under the supervision of Michelangelo and Bramante, this style is more evident.

Gothic style
Gothic style developed in Europe in the second half of the Middle Ages. It originated in France. The pointed arch was its striking feature. A large number of churches and universities were built in Europe in this style.

RENAISSANCE LITERATURE

• Renaissance writers gave importance to individual liberty and secular values.
• The basic characteristic of Renaissance literature was its breaking away from the scholasticism of the Middle Ages.

Most Renaissance writers chose to produce their works in regional languages. Prose literature gained prominence during this period. Dante, the renowned author of The Divine Comedy, was a prominent literary figure during the Renaissance period. The poem’s theme revolves around Dante’s imagined pilgrimage through Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise. However, it also profoundly refects human emotions, patriotism, fascination for natural phenomena, and the longing for a unified and independent Italy. Dante wrote The Divine Comedy in the regional language.

Another world-renowned writer, Petrarch, was a leading exponent of humanism. His sonnets addressing Laura refected a bold and unique style. However, Petrarch remained committed to writing in Latin. Another notable Renaissance writer was Boccaccio, the author of the celebrated work ‘The Decameron’.

Niccolo Machiavelli’s work. The Prince, presents political thoughts. He believed that a ruler’s paramount responsibility is to maintain the authority and security of the state. He also believed that individuals are generally selfish, driven by a desire for power and material prosperity. He advocated that a head of state should remain impartial and avoid showing favouritism or obligation to specific groups among the subjects. In The Prince, Machiavelli portrays an administrator who is different from the traditional medieval feudal administrators.

During the Italian Renaissance, several women recognised the significance of humanism. Among them, the most notable was the humanist and writer Cassandra Fedele. She earned a name through her writings and speeches, emphasising the importance of providing higher education to women. Fedele maintained a lively correspondence with wealthy Italian lords who championed humanism. Her speeches and writings were printed, published, and popularised by several prominent publishing houses.

In due course, the influence of the Renaissance extended beyond Italy, impacting the literature of other countries. Consequently, numerous remarkable works were produced in other parts of the world.
Some of them are given below:

Author	Work	Country
Erasmus	In Praise of Folly	Netherlands
Geoffrey Chaucer	Canterbury Tales	England
Thomas More	Utopia	England
Miguel de Cervantes	Don Quixote	Spain
Francois Rabelais	Gargantua and Pantagruel	France

Printing played a significant role in popularising literature during the Renaissance period. Johannes Gutenberg established the first printing press in Europe. The printing machine, which was set up in the 15th century, was made of metal and was of movable type. The influence of the printing press on the society of that period includes the dissemination of knowledge, Progress in literacy, Spread of Humanist Ideas, and Rise of the Reformation. With the invention of the printing press, people started reading literary works extensively.

RENAISSANCE AND HISTORIOGRAPHY

• This classification divides history into three distinct periods:
  • the Ancient Period, spanning up to the 5th century CE;
  • the Medieval Period, extending from the 5th to the 15th century;
  • the Modern Period, encompassing the era thereafter.
• This classification emerged during the Renaissance period. It was introduced by two Italian historians,
  Flavio Biondo and Leonardo Bruni.

The transition from medieval Christian tradition to a secular life and thought was also reflected in the realm of historiography. During the Middle Ages, the prevailing notion was that historical events were divinely ordained and supernatural powers governed the course of history. This perspective lost its relevance during the Renaissance period. Instead, human-centered explanations and interpretations gained recognition. Human life became the focus of historical narratives, superseding the chronicles of monks and biographies of priests.

• Another significant development in historiography during the Renaissance was the growing importance of archaeological evidence and relics. Thus, historians began to place greater emphasis on evidence such as inscriptions, coins, and ancient manuscripts in their narratives. Furthermore, efforts to collect and preserve ancient manuscripts intensified.
• With the emergence of humanism, critical thinking gained significance in history. Scientific enquiry and studies replaced stories and myths. The contributions of Machiavelli to Renaissance historiography are noteworthy.

Chronicles
Monarchs traditionally appointed court historians to record the events of their kingdoms. These historians documented the events during the reigns of their patrons. Modern historians have labelled these texts as “Chronicles” as they provide a continuous, chronological account of events.

RENAISSANCE AND SCIENCE

• The Renaissance laid the foundation for the evolution of modern science.
• Scientists put forward a groundbreaking view that material forces govern planetary motions.
• The revolutionary discoveries of Copernicus were further elucidated and expanded upon by Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler.
• Galileo Galilei made seminal discoveries, including satellites of Jupiter and rings of Saturn.
• The Renaissance also witnessed significant advancements in the field of medicine, particularly anatomy.
  “In the year sixteen hundred and nine the light of Science shone in his modest house in Padua as Galileo set out to prove that the Sun is fixed and the earth is on the move ”,

This is the introduction of the play on the life of Galileo by the famous German play wright Bertolt Brecht. Until the 16th century, the belief that the earth was the centre of the universe prevailed. These lines refer to the attempts made by Galileo, who challenged and negated the geocentric belief.

Remarkable transformations took place in the field of astronomy during this period. The geocentric model of Ptolemy, which positioned the Earth at the center of the universe, remained unchallenged until the 16th century. Later, Nicolaus Copernicus, a Polish astronomer and priest, challenged this prevailing doctrine. He presented a revolutionary argument that the centre of the universe is not the Earth but the Sun. Through his observations, Copernicus demonstrated that the Earth and the other planets revolve around the Sun. Kepler’s path-breaking findings revealed that the speed of planets varied based on their distance from the Sun, which laid the foundation towards the end of the 17th century for Isaac Newton’s formulation of the theory of gravitation. Galileo’s findings provided conclusive evidence in support of Copernicus’ principles.

The Swiss scientist Paracelsus conducted extensive research on the causes of diseases and tried to develop remedies. Meanwhile, Andreas Vesalius pioneered the study of human anatomy through the meticulous dissection of cadavers, thereby contributing substantially to the field of human anatomy.

THE REFORMATION

• The influence of the Renaissance extended to the realm of religion in Europe.
• The universities of Germany, particularly Wittenberg University, where Martin Luther taught, played an important role in laying the groundwork for the Reformation.
• The Reformation, which originated in Germany, soon spread to other European kingdoms.
• Following the Reformation, the Catholic Church initiated efforts to reform itself. This movement is known as the Counter-Reformation.

Satirical works penned by humanists like Erasmus, coupled with critiques from John Wycliffe, Jan Hus, and Savonarola, laid the groundwork for protests against certain practices and beliefs within the Catholic Church. One contentious issue was the sale of indulgences, where the Church would collect money from believers. Church authorities proclaimed that purchasing indulgences would redeem individuals of their sins. The money thus collected was proposed to fund the construction of hospitals and cathedrals. However, when Johann Tetzel, a Dominican monk, arrived in Germany to promote the sale of indulgences. Martin Luther, a priest, responded by pasting his famous ‘Ninety-Five Theses’ on the doors of the Wittenberg Cathedral in 1517. This pivotal event marked the beginning of the Protestant Reformation. Initially, Luther’s intention was merely to spark an ideological debate. So, he wrote his theses in Latin instead of German. However, his work was translated into German without his knowledge and, as a result, was widely disseminated. Subsequently, Luther severed his ties with the Church.

The interests of secular rulers who wished to limit the powers of the clergy and church courts further encouraged the Reformation. Many rulers had grown dissatisfied with the extensive powers of the clergy, particularly in matters of taxation and ecclesiastical appointments. Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin in Switzerland assumed leadership in the Reformation movement. In England, King Henry VIII led the Reformation, and the Anglican Church emerged there with the monarch serving as its head. This development led to the establishment of the National Church.

COUNTER REFORMATION

• Following the Reformation, the Catholic Church initiated efforts to reform itself. This movement is known as the Counter-Reformation.
• Counter-Reformation is also known as Catholic Reformation.

As part of this initiative, the Church leadership convened the Council (Synod) of Trent in Northern Italy. The objectives of this council were to correct erroneous tendencies within the Church and to implement reforms. As a result, the sale of indulgences was banned. A list of books (The Index) that the believers should not read was published. The court of inquisition, which was there in Medieval times, was reinstituted.

The Society of Jesus, set up by Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish priest, also played a prominent part in Counter Reformation. Its members were bound to observe strict discipline and unquestioned obedience. They tried to establish the authority of the Catholic Church by setting up schools and engaging in active missionary work. Counter Reformation succeeded in eliminating a number of wrong tendencies in the Catholic Church. Counter-Reformation is also known as Catholic Reformation.