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Students can Download Chapter 11 Thermal Properties of Matter Notes, Plus One Physics Notes helps you to revise the complete Kerala State Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus One Physics Notes Chapter 11 Thermal Properties of Matter

Summary
Temperature And Heat
Temperature is a measure of hotness of a body. Heat is a form of energy transferred between two system (or system and surrounding) by virtue of temperature difference. The SI unit of heat is Joule (J) and that of tempera-ture is Kelvin (K).

Measurement Of Temperature
The instrument used to measure temperature is thermometer. The different temperature scales are Kelvin scale, Degree Celsius scale, and Fahrenheit scale. If t₁ and t_c are temperature in Fahrenheit scale and Celsius scale, then their linear relationship is given by

This relation can be graphically represented as shown

If T is temperature in kelvin scale, then
T = t_c + 273.15.
A comparison of the three temperature scales is shown

Ideal Gas Equation & Absolute Temperature Boyle’s law:
At constant temperature, pressure is inversely proportional to volume.
p α \(\frac{1}{V}\)
PV = constant _______(1)
Charle’s law: At constant pressure, volume is directly proportional to temperature
v α T
\(\frac{V}{T}\) = constant ______(2)
Combining (1) and (2), we get PV
\(\frac{PV}{T}\) = constant T
This is called ideal gas law. Generally, the law can be expressed for any quantity of dilute gas as

µ is the number of moles in given gas and R is universal gas constant.
The value of R is 8.31 J mol^-1 k^-1.
Absolute Temperature:
The minimum value of temperature for ideal gas is – 273.15°C (OK). This temperature is called absolute zero. On kelvin scale -273.15°C is taken as zero point.
Note:
The absolute temperature for a gas can be obtained by extrapolating the pressure versus temperature graph as shown below.

Thermal Expansion
The change in temperature of a body may change its length, area or volume. The fractional change in dimension [ratio of change in dimension to original dimension] is proportional to change in temperature.

The corresponding proportionally constant is called coefficient of thermal expansion or thermal expansivity. Thermal expansion can be defined as ratio of increase in dimension of body to increase in temperature.

There are different three types of thermal expansion, which are shown in the table given below
Note: (1)
Show that the coefficient of volume expansion for ideal gas is reciprocal of temperature
(α_v = 1/T)
Proof: Ideal Gas Equation is

At constant pressure P∆V = µR∆T ______(2).
Dividing we get

Anomalous behavior of water:
Generally volume of liquid increases with temperature .When water is heated, its volume starts to decrease from 0°C and reaches minimum at 4°C. Hence density of water is maximum at 4°C.

Question 1.
Derive the following relations

1. α_a = 2α_l
2. α_v = 3α_l

Answer:
Consider a cube of length ‘l’. Due to the increase in temperature ‘∆T’, length of cube increases by ∆l in all directions.
Coefficient of linear expansion, α_l = \(\frac{\Delta \ell}{\ell \Delta \mathrm{T}}\)
1. Increase in area of cube ∆A
= Final area – initial area
= (l + ∆l)² – l² = 2 × l × ∆l
[Neglecting ∆l²]
Area expansivity

Therefore, α_a = 2 . α_l.

2. Due to ‘∆T ’ the increase in volume of cube,
∆V = (l + + ∆l)³ – l³
= 3l²∆l²
[Neglecting ∆l² & ∆l³]

Therefore, α_v = 3 . α_l.

Specific Heat Capacity
Heat capacity:
Heat capacity (S) of substance is the quantity of heat required to increase the temperature of whole substance.
If ∆Q is the amount of heat required to increase the temperature by ∆T the heat capacity.

Specific heat capacity:
Specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as amount of heat required to increase temperature of unit mass of substance by one unit.
If ∆Q is amount of heat absorbed by substance of mass m and ∆T is change in temperature, then specific heat capacity is

The SI unit of specific heat capacity is J Kg^-1K^-1.
Molar specific heat capacity (C):
Molar specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of 1 mole of substance by one unit.
Its unit is J mol^-1 K^-1.
If a sample has ‘µ’ moles of substance, then its molar specific heat capacity is given by

Molar specific capacity are of two types:

• molar specific capacity at constant volume (CV)
• molar specific heat capacity at constant pressure (CP).

Note:

• Water has high specific heat capacity. So it is used as coolant in automobile radiators and as a heater in hot water bags.
• Due to high specific heat capacity of water, land is more warmer than water during daytime.

Calorimetry
Calorimetry means measurement of temperature. Calorimeter is a device used to measure heat. Calorimeter consists of a metallic vessel and a stirrer of same type. The vessel is kept inside a wooden jacket.

The wooden jacket contains insulating mate-rials like glass, wool etc. and hence it prevent heat loss. This jacket has a small opening at top and a thermometer is inserted into this hole.

Change Of State
A transition from one state (solid, liquid or gas) to another state is called change of state. There are four such transitions of state.

Change of state	Name of transition
Solid → Liquid Liquid → gas Liquid → solid Solid  → gas (without forming liquid)	Melting Vapurization Fusion Sublimation

During change of state, the two different state coexist in thermal equilibrium and temperature remains constant until the completion of change of state.

Melting point:
The temperature at which solid and liquid coexist in thermal equilibrium with each other is called melting point. The melting point decreases with pressure

Boiling point.
The temperature at which liquid and vapour state of substance coexist in thermal equilibrium with each other is called boiling point. The boiling point increases with increase in pressure and it decreases with decrease in pressure.

Regelation

Take an ice block. Put a metal wire over the ice block and attach 5 kg. blocks at the two ends of wire as shown. Then we can see that the metal wire passes through the ice block to the other side without splitting it.

Explanation: The melting point of ice just below the wire decreases due to increase in pressure. As ice melts wire passes and refreeze (due to decrease in pressure). This process is called regelation.

Question 2.
Cooking is difficult at high altitude. Why?
Answer:
At high altitude, pressure is low. Boiling point decreases with decrease in pressure.

Question 3.
For cooking rice pressure cooker is preferred. Why?
Answer:
In pressure cooker, boiling point of water is increased by increasing pressure. Thus rice can be cooked at high temperature.

Question 4.
You might have observed the bubbles of steam coming from bottom of vessel when water is heated. These bubbles disappear as it reaches top of liquid just before boiling and they reach the surface at the time of boiling. Explain the reason?
Answer:
Just before boiling, the bottom of liquid will be warm and at the top, liquid will be cool. So the bubbles of steam formed at bottom rises to cooler water and condense, hence they disappear. At the time of boiling, temperature of entire mass of water will be 100°C. Now the bubbles reaches top and then escape.

1. Latent Heat:
The amount of heat per unit mass transferred during change of state of substance is called latent heat of substance for the process.
Eg: Latent heat of vaporization (L_v), Latent heat of fusion (L_f).
If ‘m’ is quantity of substance which undergoes change of state and Q is amount of heat required, then latent heat
L = \(\frac{Q}{m}\)
Latent heat is characteristic of substance and it depends on pressure. Its unit is JKg^-1.

Question 5.
Draw the temperature versus heat diagram for water. Mark the three phases of water (including its change of state).
Give reasons forthe following

1. The slope of phase line during change of state iszero.
2. The slope of phase line forthe three phases are different.

Answer:

1. During change of state temperature remains constant.
2. Specific heats of different phases are different.

Question 6.
Burns from steam are usually more serious than boil-ing water. Why?
Answer:
Latent heat of vaporization for water is 22.6 × 10⁵J Kg^-1 (ie; 22.6 × 10⁵J heat is required to convert 1 kg of water into steam at 100°C). So at 100°C, steam carries 22.6 × 10⁵J. (more heat than water).

Heat Transfer
Heat transfer occurs due to temperature difference. The three modes of heat transfer are

1. conduction
2. convection
3. radiation.

1. Conduction:
In conduction, heat transfers between two adjacent parts of a body due to temperature difference. Heat conduction can be considered as time rate of heat flow (heat current). At steady state the time rate of heat flow (H) is proportional to temperature difference ∆T area of cross section (A) and inversely proportional to length of conductor (L).

K is called thermal conductivity.
Its unit is JS^-1m^-1K^-1 or Wm^-1K^-1.

Question 7.
Some cooking pots have copper coating on its bottom. Why?
Answer:
Because of high thermal conductivity of copper, it distributes heat over the bottom of pot very quickly and promotes uniform cooking.

Note: In the house with concrete roof, a layer of insulatiori is made on the ceiling to prevent heat transfer and hence to keep the room cooler.

2. Convection:
In convection, different parts of fluid moves from one point to other. Convection can be natural of forced.
In natural convection when fluid is heated, it expands and becomes less dense. It then rises up and colder part replaces it. This process goes on as a cycle.

Question 8.
Explain the reason for sea breeze
Answer:
During the day, land heats up more quickly than water in lake (due to high specific heat capacity of water). The air on the surface of earth gets heated, expands, becomes less dense and rises up. The colder air (wind) replaces the space created by hot air. It creates a sea breeze. At night the land loses its heat very quickly than water. So water remains more warmer at night.

Note: In forced convection, material is forced to move by pump or by other physical means. Some examples are cooling system of automobile engines, heart that circulate blood throughout our body.

3. Radiation:
In radiation, energy is transferred in the form of electromagnetic radiation called heat radiation. Medium is not required for heat transfer. Earth receives energy from sun by means of radiation.

Thermal radiation:
The electromagnetic radiation entitled by a body by virtue of its temperature is called thermal radiation.

Question 9.
The untensils for cooking purpose are blackened at the bottom. Why?
Answer:
This is to absorb maximum heat from fire and hence to fast up cooking.

4. Black body radiation:
Black body:
A black body is one which absorbs radiations of all wavelengths incident on it. When a black body is heated it will emit radiations of all possible wavelengths. The wavelengths emitted by a perfect black body are called black body radiations.
Energy distribution in a black body radiation:

Lummer and Pringsheim performed an experiment to study the distribution of energy (among the radiation emitted by a black body) at different temperatures.
Result of experiment:
1. Fora given temperature the energy distribution is not uniform.

2. The energy associated with both longer and shorter wavelength of radiation emitted is small.

3. For each temperature there exists a particular wavelength corresponding to which the energy associated is maximum (λm).

4. This maximum energy carrying wavelength (λm) decreases with an increase in temperature of the black body.

5. The area under each curve represents the total energy emitted by the body at a particular temperature.

This area increases with increase of temperature. It is found that area is directly proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature,
ie. E a T⁴
Wein’s displacement law:
Wein’s displacement law states that the product of the wavelength corresponding to maximum energy (λm) and the absolute temperature of black body is constant.
ie. λmT = constant
The value of the constant (Wein’s constant) is 2.9 × 10^-3mK.
This law explains why the colour of a piece of iron heated in a hot flame first becomes dull red, then reddish yellow and finally white hot.

Wein’s law is useful for estimating the surface temperatures of moon, sun and other stars. If red and blue stars emit radiations of continuous wavelengths, then blue star is hotter than red star.

Stefan’s law of radiation:
Stefan’s law states that the total radiant energy emitted persecond from unit area of the surface of a black body is directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
E a T⁴
E = sT⁴

Green house effect:
The earth surface is a source of thermal radiation because it absorbs energy received from sun. The wavelength of this radiation lies in the infrared region. But a larger portion of this radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases, (CO₂, CH₄, etc).

This heats up the atmosphere. The net result is heating up of earths surface and atmosphere. This is known green house effect.

Newtons laws of cooling
According to Newton’s law of cooling the rate of loss of heat is directly proportional to difference of temperature between the body and its surroundings.

T₁ is temperature of surrounding medium and T₂ is temperature of body. K is constant that depends on nature of surface and area of exposed surface.
Note:

• The law is applicable for small temperature difference.
• For small temperature difference, cooling occurs due to a combination of conduction, convection, and radiation.
• The graph between difference in temperature and time is as shown in figure.

Students can Download Chapter 9 Environment Sustainable Development Questions and Answers, Plus One Economics Chapter Wise Questions and Answers helps you to revise the complete Kerala State Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations

Kerala Plus One Economics Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 9 Environment Sustainable Development

Plus One Economics Environment Sustainable Development One Mark Questions and Answers

Question 1.
What is the name of UNCED seminal report?
Answer:
Our Common Future.

Question 2.
Protecting future generations is emphasised by which of the following?
(i) Brundtland commission
(ii) Our common future
(iii) UNCED
(iv) Herman Daly
Answer:
(i) Bmndtland commission

Question 3.
Kyoto protocol was signed in ______ .
(i) 1990
(ii) 1992
(iii) 1997
(iv) 1999
Answer:
(iii) 1997

Question 4.
In which state, Chipko Movement took place?
(i) Karnataka
(ii) Punjab
(iii) Himachal Pradesh
(iv) U.P.
Answer:
(iii) Himachal Pradesh

Question 5.
Identify the strategy for sustainable development.
(i) Wind energy
(ii) Solar energy
(iii) Gobar gas
(iv) All the above
Answer:
(iv) All the above

Plus One Economics Environment Sustainable Development Two Mark Questions and Answers

Question 1.
How does the UNCED define sustainable development?
Answer:
The UNCED defines sustainable development as the development that meets the need of the present generation without compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their own needs.

Question 2.
Explain the supply-demand reversal of environmental resources.
Answer:
In the initial stages of development, the demand for environmental resources was less than that of supply. But now the world is faced with increased demand for environmental resources, but their supply is limited due to overuse and misuse.

Question 3.
Give two instances of

1. overuse of environmental resources
2. misuse of environmental resources

Answer:
1. Overuse of environmental resources:

• land
• forests

2. Misuse of environmental resources:

• electricity,
• water

Question 4.
Classify the following into renewable and non-renewable resources.
[Coal, Forest resources, Fish, Petrol]
Answer:
1. Renewable

• Forest resources
• Fish

2. Non-renewable

• Coal
• Petrol

Question 5.
A few terms are given below. Make pairs of them.
[Growth, Development, Unidimensional, Multi dimensional]
Answer:

• Unidimensional – Growth
• Multidimensional – Development

Question 6.
Outline the steps involved in attaining sustainable development in India.
Answer:
The steps involved in attaining sustainable development in India are:
1. decreasing the absolute poverty of the poor by providing employment opportunities

2. providing livelihood in such a manner that can minimize resource depletion, environmental degradation, cultural disruption, and social instability.

Question 7.
Two major environmental issues facing the world today are ………. and ……………
Answer:
Ozone depletion and global warming.

Question 8.
What is sustainable development?
Answer:
Sustainable development is a development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their own needs.

Question 9.
Make a list of items that can be recycled.
Answer:
The following are the things that can be recycled

1. Plastic
2. Papers
3. Polythene
4. Glass, and
5. Certain categories of waste of industries

Question 10.
What happens when the rate of resource extraction exceeds that of their regeneration?
Answer:
If the rate of resource extraction exceeds that of their regeneration, the environment fails to sustain life by providing genetic and biodiversity. This will result in an economic crisis. The rising population in developing countries and the affluent consumption of resources have placed a huge stress on environments.

Question 11.
Give a short narration of ‘Chipko movement’.
Answer:
‘Chipko Movement’ was started in Karnataka to save trees. The word ‘Chipko’ means ‘to hug’. On 8^th September 1983, 160 men, women and children hugged the trees in Salkani forest in Sirsi and forced the woodcutters to leave the ultimate aim of this movement is to save trees.

Plus One Economics Environment Sustainable Development Three Mark Questions and Answers

Question 1.
What are the opportunity costs of negative environmental impacts?
Answer:

1. As the reserves are exhausted huge amount of money should be spent on research to explore new resources.
2. Health cost of degraded environmental quality.
3. Increased financial commitment for the government due to global warming and ozone depletion.

Question 2.
What do you mean by ‘Green net national income’? How is it calculated?
Answer:
Green net national income is the difference between net national income and depreciation of natural capital. It can be calculated using the following formula.
Green net national income = Net national income – depletion of natural resources – environmental degradation.

Question 3.
Match the columns

Answer:

Plus One Economics Environment Sustainable Development Four Mark Questions and Answers

Question 1.
Keeping in view your locality, suggest any four strategies of sustainable development.
Answer:
The following strategies can be adopted for the sustainable development of our locality.

• Use of solar power through photovoltaic cells
• The practice of bio composting
• Generating wind power
• Using bio pest control

Question 2.
Differentiate between natural capital and man made capital?
Answer:
1. Natural capital refers to the sum total of the natural resources and environment available to a country as a free gift of nature.

2. On the other hand, man-made capital refers to the stock of all such things which are produced by man for use as means of production.

Question 3.
Fill in the blanks

1. Coal is a …………… energy
2. Burning of fossil fuel leads to …………
3. Bio composts are used in …………… farming
4. CFCs cause ……………… depletion

Answer:

1. non-renewable
2. global warming
3. organic
4. ozone

Question 4.
List out the functions of the environment.
Answer:
The environment performs four vital functions which
are listed out below:
1. It supplies resources:
resources here include both renewable and nonrenewable resources. Renewable resources are those which can be used without the possibility of the resource becoming depleted or exhausted.

That is, a continuous supply of the resource remains available. Examples of renewable resources are the trees in the forests and the fishes in the ocean. Nonrenewable resources, on the other hand, are those which get exhausted with extraction and use, for example, fossil fuel.

2. It assimilates waste

3. It sustains life by providing genetic and biodiversity and

4. It also provides aesthetic services like scenery etc.

Question 5.
Identify the factors contributing to land degradation in India?
Answer:
The following are the factors responsible for land degradation in India.

1. loss of vegetation occurring due to deforestation.
2. shifting cultivation.
3. forest fires.
4. unsustainable fuelwood extraction.
5. overgrazing.
6. non-adoption of soil conservation measures.

Question 6.
“The environmental crisis is a recent phenomenon”. Do you agree?
Answer:
Yes, environment crisis is a recent phenomenon. In early days, when civilisation just began, before the phenomenal increase in population and growth of industrialisation, the demand for environmental resources was within the carrying capacity of the environment and so the pollution was also within the absorptive capacity, of the environment.

Therefore, environmental problems did not arise. But with the advent of industrialisation and outbreak of population, environmental problems arisen and the resources for both production and consumption proved to be beyond the rate of regeneration of the resources and the absorptive capacity of the environment.

Plus One Economics Environment Sustainable Development Five Mark Questions and Answers

Question 1.
Account for the current environmental crisis.
Answer:
Environment performs four functions, namely, supplies resources, assimilates wastes, sustains life and provides aesthetic services. But the rising population of the developing countries, the affluent consumption and production standards of the developing countries and industrial revolution have brought the situation of environmental crisis i.e., it all had put great pressure on the first two functions of the environment.

Many resources have become extinct and the wastes generated are beyond the absorptive capacity of environment. The crisis has worsened by the drying up of rivers. Besides, the intensive and extensive extraction of both renewable and non-renewable resources has exhausted some of these vital resources and thus we are compelled to spend huge resources on technology and research to explore new resources.

The situation becomes more worsened with the current issues of global warming and ozone depletion. They also put great strain on government’s finite financial resources.

Question 2.
In 2007 Nobel Prize for Peace was awarded to an individual Algore and an institution IPCC, both engaged in creating awareness about the consequences of global warming. Suggest some measures to keep global warming under control.
Answer:
Global warming refers to the increase in the atmosphere temperature. The temperature increases due to the emission of greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases are emerged from the burning of biomass and from the consumption of petrol, coal, etc, can absorb temperature.
This can be reduced by :

1. Reducing pollution and waste.
2. Using more solar, wind and tidal energy.
3. New technology and eco-friendly means of production.
4. Afforestation
5. Effective rules and its implementation.

Plus One Economics Environment Sustainable Development Eight Mark Questions and Answers

Question 1.
Prepare a Seminar Report on “Strategies for Sustainable Development”
[Hint: A Seminar Report should have a title, Introduction, Content, and conclusion].
Answer:
“Strategies for Sustainable Development”.
Introduction:
The plus one commerce batch of (Name of school) conducted a seminar on the topic “Strategies for Sustainable Development” on 12/09/ 2017 at 11.0 a.m with the ample guidance of our economics teacher. Our class was divided into five groups to cover the entire area of the topic. Each group focused on two points each. They focused on the area given to them and the group leader presented the seminar paper after required preparation.

Content:
Sustainable development is, in this sense, a development that meets the basic needs of all, particularly the poor majority, for employment, food, energy, water, housing, and ensures growth of agriculture, manufacturing, power, and services to meet these needs.

1. Strategies for sustainable development use of non-conventional Sources of Energy:
India, as you know, is hugely dependent on thermal and hydropower plants to meet its power needs. Both of these have adverse environmental impacts. Thermal power plants emit large quantities of carbon dioxide which is a greenhouse gas. It also produces fly ash which, if not used properly, can cause pollution of water bodies, land and other components of the environment.

2. LPG, Gobar Gas in Rural Areas:
Households in rural areas generally use wood, dung cake or other biomass as fuel. This practice has several adverse implications like deforestation, reduction in green cover, wastage of cattle dung and air pollution. To rectify the situation, subsidized LPG is being provided.

In addition, gobar gas plants are being provided through easy loans and subsidy. As far as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is concerned, it is a clean fuel it reduces household pollution to a large extent. Also, energy wastage is minimized

3. CNG in Urban Areas:
In Delhi, the use of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) as fuel in public transport system has significantly lowered air pollution and the air has become cleaner in the last few years.

4. Wind Power:
In areas where speed of wind is usually high, windmills can provide electricity without any adverse impact on the environment. Wind turbines move with the wind and electricity is generated.

5. Solar Power through Photovoltaic Cells:
India is naturally endowed with a large quantity of solar energy in the form of sunlight. With the help of photovoltaic cells, solar energy can be converted into electricity. These cells use special kind of materials to capture solar energy and then convert the energy into electricity.

6. Mini hydel Plants:
In mountainous regions, streams can be found almost everywhere. A large percentage of such streams are perennial. Mini-hydel plants use the energy of such streams to move small turbines.

7. Traditional Knowledge and Practices:
Traditionally, Indian people have been close to their environment. They have been more a component of the environment and not its controller.

If we look back at our agriculture system, health care system, housing, transport, etc., we find that all practices have been environment-friendly. Only recently have we drifted away from the traditional systems and caused large scale damage to the environment and also our rural heritage.

8. Bio-composting:
In our quest to increase agricultural production during the last five decades or so, we almost totally neglected the use of compost and completely switched over to chemical fertilizers.

9. Bio-pest Control:
With the advent of green revolution, the entire country entered into a frenzy to use more and more chemical pesticides for higher yield. Soon, the adverse impacts began to show; food products were contaminated, soil, water bodies, and even groundwater were polluted with pesticides.

Conclusion:
All five groups presented their topics with necessary facts and figures. After the presentation, there was a question-answer session. The active participation of everyone made this session live and interesting. On the whole, the seminar was a big success.

 

Students can Download Chapter 7 Formation of a Company Questions and Answers, Plus One Business Studies Chapter Wise Questions and Answers helps you to revise the complete Kerala State Syllabus and score more marks in your examination

Kerala Plus One Bussiness Studies Chapter Wise Questions and Answers Chapter 7 Formation of a Company

Plus One Formation of a Company One Mark Questions and Answers

Question 1.
Application for approval of name of a company is to be made to
Answer:
Registrar of companies.

Question 2.
A prospectus is issued by
Answer:
Public company

Question 3.
Preliminary contracts are signed
Answer:
Before the incorporation

Question 4.
At which stage in the formation of a company does it interact with SEBI
Answer:
Capital subscription

Question 5.
The first stage in the formation of a company is __________
Answer:
Promotion

Question 6.
“I undertake to form a new company and carry out all the preliminary work in connection with its establishment” Who am I?
Answer:
Promoter

Question 7.
Preliminary Contracts are signed
1. Before the incorporation
2. After incorporation but before capital subscription
3. After incorporation but before of commencement of business
4. After commencement business
Answer:
1. Before the incorporation

Question 8.
Spot the odd one and state the reason
1. Memorandum of Association
2. Articles of Association
3. Certificate of incorporation
4. Certificate of commencement of business
Answer:
5. Certificate of commencement of business

Question 9.
_____________ is the magnacarta of the company.
Answer:
Memorandum of Association

Question 10.
_____________ is the birth certificate of a company.
Answer:
Certificate of incorporation

Question 11.
The procedure for conducting company meetings, voting, quorum, poll and proxy will be mentioned in the
1. Prospectus
2. Memorandum of Association
3. Articles of Association
Answer:
3. Articles of Association

Question 12.
The provision regarding the internal management of a company will appear in its
Answer:
Articles of Association

Question 13.
Public Companies need __________ to commence the business.
Answer:
Certificate of commencement of business

Question 14.
Directors of a public Ltd. Co. decided to give advertisement in all newspapers for subscribing their shares. Identify the document given below
1. table A
2. memorandum of association
3. prospectus
Answer:
3. Prospectus

Question 15.
This clauses is the form of a declaration, it states that the subscribers express the willingness and agreement to form a company. Name the clause of memorandum of association.
Answer:
Association Clause

Question 16.
This clause specifies the name of the state where the registered office of the Co. is situated. Identify the clause.
Answer:
Situation clause

Question 17.
This clause specifies the name of the company.
Answer:
Name clause

Question 18.
Identify the document in which the following information about a company can be found.

1. Object with which the company is formed.
2. Rules and regulations of internal management
3. Investing deposits from the public
4.  Acknowledgement of debt in a company

Answer:

1. Memorandum of Association
2. Articles of Association
3. Mutual fund
4. Debenture

Question 19.
TABLE A is a model of _________ given in companies Act.
Answer:
Articles of Association

Question 20.
Identify the documents in which following information about a company is found.

1. Authorized capital
2.  Rules and regulation for internal management.
3.  Date of opening and closing of subscription list.

Answer:

1. Memorandum of Associaiton
2. Articles of Association
3. Prospectus

Question 21.
Identify the relevant clauses in the memorandum of association in which the following information can be included.

1. The registered office is in Kerala.
2. Statutory declaration by members
3. Ram Limited
4. The scope of activities of company

Answer:

1. Situation clause
2. Association clause
3. Name clause
4. Object clause

Question 22.
State the odd item in the case of a private limited company.
1. memorandum of association
2. articles of association
3. certificate of incorporation
4. certificate of commencement of business
Answer:
4. Certificate of Commencement of business

Question 23.
Mention the name of the certificates/documents relating to following activities / formalities

1. The certificate issued by the Registrar of companies certifying that the company has come into existence.
2. The document, which contains the various rules and regulations that govern the management of the company.
3. The document that defines the objectives of the company.

Answer:

1. Certificate of Incorporation
2. Articles of Association
3. Memorandum of Association

Question 24.
Name the following documents.

1. The document issued by the company to the public to invite them to subscribe its share capital.
2. The document that binds a member with the company, company with members and members with members.
3. The document that contains rules for internal management of the company.
4. The document that specifies the aims of the company.
5. The document issued by the public company which does not want to issue a prospectus.

Answer:

1. Prospectus
2. Articles of Association
3. Articles of Association
4. Memorandum of Association
5. Statement in lieu of Prospectus

Plus One Formation of a Company Two Mark Questions and Answers

Question 1.
Name the stages in the formation of a company?
Answer:

1. Promotion
2. Incorporation
3. Capital subscription
4. Commencement of business (2)

Question 2.
Name the stages in the formation of a company. (2)
Answer:

1. Promotion
2. Incorporation
3. Commencement of business

Question 3.
What do you mean by promotion? (2)
Answer:
The identification of business opportunities, analysis of its prospects and initiating steps to form a joint stock company is called promotion.

Question 4.
For incorporating a private limited company, Deepthi Pvt. Ltd., the directors submit all relevant documents to the registrar of company except Articles of Association. But the registrar insists that, registration will not be granted without filing Articles of Association. But the directors of Deepthi Pvt. Ltd., argue that the provisions of ‘Table A’ can be adopted in the absence of Articles of Association. Whose argument is correct? Justify your answer. (2)
Answer:
The argument of the Company Registrar is right because filing of Articles of association is compulsory for Pvt. Ltd company by shares.

Question 5.
Arya Ltd. commences its business immediately on getting the certificate of incorporation. The registrar of companies serves a notice to them for remitting a fine of ₹500 for everyday of its operation. Is it legally enforceable? Give your suggestion. (2)
Answer:
Yes. Public Ltd. Company can commence business only after getting the certificate of commencement of business.

Question 6.
It is proposed to conduct a seminar on the topic ‘important documents in the formation of joint stock company’ in your class. You are selected as the leader of one of the groups and are directed to submit a seminar paper for the same. Suggest valuable points that should be included in the paper. (2)
Answer:

1. Memorandum of Association
2. Articles of Association
3. Prospectus

Question 7.
What do you mean by Minimum Subscription? (2)
Answer:
Minimum subscription is the minimum amount of shares that must be subscribed by the public. This amount is stated in the prospectus. A company can allot shares only after receiving minimum subscription.

Question 8.
I lay down the charter or the constitution of the company. I define the object and powers of the company.

1. Identify who am I?
2. Also name my companion who provides rules and regulations for the internal management of the company. (Both are two documents). (2)

Answer:

1. Memorandum of Association
2. Articles of Association

Plus One Formation of a Company Three Mark Questions and Answers

Question 1.
Is it necessary for a public company to get its shares listed on a stock exchange? What happens if a public company fails to get the permission from stock exchange? (3)
Answer:
Yes. A public company must list its shares with at least any one of the stock exchange for the allotment of shares. Therefore, the promoters must apply in a stock exchange for permission to deal in its shares or debentures. If permission is not granted before the expiry of ten weeks from the date of Closure of subscription list, the allotment shall become void and the application money must be returned to the applicants within eight days.

Question 2.
State the difference between certificate of incorporation and certificate of commencement of business. (3)
Answer:
Certificate of Incorporation gives legal status to the company. It is also known as birth certificate of the company. But certificate of commencement of business allows to start the operation.

These two certificates are required by the public limited company, but in case of private limited company only certificate of Incorporation is required to start the operation.

Question 3.
Nisha, Shani and Sheena are promoters of a public company. But they do not want to raise capital by approaching the public. They decide to raise capital by issuing shares to a few persons. Is it possible? If yes, what document is used for raising capital? (3)
Answer:
Yes. They can raise capital by issuing shares to a few persons. For this they can issue Statement in lieu of prospectus.

Plus One Formation of a Company Four Mark Questions and Answers

Question 1.
Identify the documents required for commencing business for the following companies. (4)

1. Athira Pvt. Ltd.
2. Aditya Ltd.

Answer:
1. Athira Pvt. Ltd – A private company must file the following documents for commencing business

• Certificate of incorporation
• Statutory declaration duly verified by one of the directors.

2. Aditya Ltd., a public company, must file the following documents for commencing business.

• Certificate of incorporation
• Certificate of commencement of business
• Prospectus
• Statutory declaration duly verified by one of the directors.

Question 2.
The details of a proposed private company having limited liability is given below. You are required to identify as to which clauses in the Memorandum of Association have to be rightly inserted. (4)
Proposed names:
Mahatma Gandhi Khadi – Company
Premier Mills (P) Ltd.
Kerala Government Khadi Company
Sobha Co-operative Company
Maximum capital which can be collected is 20 lakhs rupees
Nature of shares
Equity shares at Rs. 10/- share

Address:
Pushpa Nivas Kodunganoor (P.O)
Thiruvananthapuram 13
Kerala State
India.

Nature of business:
To produce Khadi clothes through machine To stitch Khadi ready wears Name of the persons who are wishing to form the company
P. Sudarsanan
K. Muraleedharan Nair
S. Renjith
Answer:

1. Name clause
2. Capital clause
3. Situation clause
4. Object clause
5. Association clause

Plus One Formation of a Company Five Mark Questions and Answers

Question 1.
“Promoter would be personally liable for the preliminary contracts, if they are not ratified by the company after incorporation. Analyse the statement. (5)
Answer:
Promotion:
Promotion is the first stage in the formation of a company. The identification of business opportunities, analysis of its prospects and initiating steps to form a joint stock company is called promotion. The person who undertakes to form a company is called promoter.

Functions of a Promoter:

1. Identification of business opportunity:
The first and foremost activity of a promoter is to identify a business opportunity.

2. Feasibility studies:
After identifying a business opportunity, the promoters undertake some feasibility studies to determine the viability and profitability of the proposed activity.

• Technical feasibility – To determine whether the raw materials or technology is easily available
• Financial feasibility – To determine the total estimated cost of the project
• Economic feasibility – To determine the I profitability of the proposed project

3. Name approval:
After selecting the name of company the promoters submit an application to the Registrar of companies for its approval. The selected name is not the same or identical to an existing company.

4. Fixing up signatories to the Memorandum of Association:
Promoters have to decide about the members who will be signing the Memorandum of Association of the proposed company.

5. Appointment of professional:
Promoters appoint merchant bankers, auditors etc. to assist them in the preparation of necessary documents.

6. Preparation of necessary documents:
The promoters prepare certain legal documents which are to be submitted to the Registrar of companies. They are

• Memorandum of Association
• Articles of Association,
• Consent of proposed Directors
• Agreement, if any, with proposed managing or whole time director
• Statutory declaration

Position of Promoters:
The promoter is neither an agent nor a trustee of the company. The promoter stands in the fiduciary relationship with the company. He should not make any secret profits out of the dealings. Any, such gains are to be disclosed. The promoter must act honestly, in good faith and in the best interest of the company.

The promoter is personally liable for all the preliminary contracts with the other parties before incorporation. The promoter is also liable for any omission of facts or false statements in the prospectus.

Question 2.
Memorandum of Association is the charter or magna carta of the company. Elucidate the statement. (5)
Answer:
Memorandum of Association:
It is the charter or magnacarta of the company. It defines the objects of the company and provides the framework beyond which the company cannot operate. It lays down the relationship of the company with outside world.

Memorandum of Association must be printed, divided into paragraphs, numbered consecutively. The Memorandum of Association must be signed by at least seven persons in case of a public company and by two persons in case of a private company.

Contents of Memorandum of Association

1. The name clause:
Under this clause the name of the company is mentioned. A company can select any name subject to the following restrictions.

• The proposed name should not be identical with the name of another company
• A name which can mislead the public
• In case of a public company the name should end with the word ‘Limited’ and in case of a private company the name should end with the word ‘Private Limited’
• The name must not directly or indirectly imply any participation of the Central or State Govt.
• The name must not suggest any connection or patronage of a national hero
• It should not include the word cooperative.

2. Registered office clause:
This clause contains the name of the state, in which the registered office of the company is proposed to be situated. It must be informed to the Registrar within thirty days of the incorporation of the company.

3. Objects clause:
This is the most important clause of the memorandum. It defines the purpose for which the company is formed. A company is not legally entitled to undertake an activity, which is beyond the objects stated in this clause.

4. Liability clause:
It states that the liability of members is limited to the face value of shares held by them or the amount guaranteed to be paid on winding up.

5. Capital clause:
This clause specifies the maximum capital which the company will be authorised to raise through, the issue of shares.

6. Association clause:
In this clause, the signatories to the Memorandum of Association state their intention to be associated with the company and also give their consent to purchase qualification shares.

Question 3.
Explain the contents of prospectus. (5)
Answer:
Prospectus:
Prospectus is a document issued by the public companies inviting the public to subscribe for shares or debentures of the company. It contains all information regarding the company’s affairs and its future prospects. A prospectus must be dated and signed by all the directors. A copy of the prospectus must be filed with Registrar before it is issued to public.

Contents of prospectus

1. Name and address of the registered office of the company.
2. Main objects of the company.
3. Classes of shares and debentures.
4. Name, address and occupation of the signatories to the memorandum.
5. Details of the borrowing powers of the company.
6. Name, address and occupation of the directors and managing director.
7. Name and address of the promoters.
8. Minimum subscription.
9. Time of opening and closing of subscription.
10.  The amount payable on application and allotment of each class of shares.
11.  Name of underwriters.
12.  Details of preliminary expenses.
    Companies which do not want to issue a prospectus may submit a statement in lieu of prospectus to the Registrar of Companies. It is a copy of the prospectus but is not issued to the public.

Question 4.
The details of a proposed limited company are given below. You are required to identify them as to which clause of the memorandum of association they have to be inserted. (5)

1. Proposed name: Jnana Construction Company Ltd
2. Maximum Capital: ₹10,00,000
3. Registered office: Kollam
4. Nature of liability: Limited
5. Nature of Business: Construction company
6. Names of promoters: Jnana, Akshara, Pooja, Ajay

Answer:

1. Name clause
2. Capital clause
3. Situation / Domicile clause
4. Liability clause
5. Object clause
6. Association clause

Question 5
A public company can commence business only after getting the certificate of commencement of business. Abhijith, a plus two student wants to know the conditions to be fulfilled to obtain the certificate of commencement of business.
Answer:

Commencement of Business:
A public company can commence business only after getting certificate of commencement of business from the Registrar. The company must file the following documents to obtain the certificate of commencement of business.

1. Declaration that the minimum subscription has been received in cash to allot shares.
2. A declaration that all directors have taken up and paid for their qualification shares
3. A statutory declaration stating that necessary legal formalities have been complied with has to be filed.

The Registrar shall examine these documents. If these are found satisfactory, a ‘Certificate of Commencement of Business’ will be issued. This certificate is conclusive evidence that the company is entitled to do business. With the grant of this certificate the formation of a public company is complete and the company can legally start doing business.
Documents used in the formation of a company

Plus One Formation of a Company Six Mark Questions and Answers

Question 1.
I govern the internal affairs of the company. Explain who am ‘I’? List out my contents.
OR
For the purpose of registering a new company, the promoter requires a document containing the rules and regulations governing its internal affairs. (6)

1. What is that document? Explain.
2. State the contents of this statement.

Answer:
Articles of Association:
The Articles of Association is the second important document of a company. The Articles define the rights, duties and powers of the officers and the Board of directors. It contains the rules regarding internal management of the company. It shows the relationship between the company and its members.

Contents of Articles of Association:

1. The share capital of the company and its division.
2. Rights of each class of shareholders.
3. Details of contracts made with different parties.
4. Procedure for making allotment of shares.
5. Procedure for issuing share certificate.
6. Procedure for transfer and transmission of shares.
7. Procedure for forfeiture and reissue of shares.
8. Procedure for conducting meetings, voting, proxy and poll
9. Procedure for appointing, removal and remuneration of directors.
10. Procedure for declaration of and payment of dividend.
11. Keeping books of account and audit of the company.
12. Procedure regarding alteration of share capital.
13. Procedure regarding winding up of the company.

Table A:
A public limited company may adopt Table A which is a model set of articles given in the Companies Act. Table A is a document containing rules and regulations for the internal management of a company. If a company adopts Table A, there is no need to prepare separate Articles of Association.

Question 2.
Vishnu, a promoter of a public company, approaches you to get information relating to raising of capital from public. As a commerce student mention the document required for inviting the public to purchase or subscribe to its shares and debentures. Explain. (6)
Answer:
Prospectus:
Prospectus is a document issued by the public companies inviting the public to subscribe for shares or debentures of the company. It contains all information regarding the company’s affairs and its future prospects. A prospectus must be dated and signed by all the directors. A copy of the prospectus must be filed with Registrar before it is issued to public.

Contents of prospectus:

1. Name and address of the registered office of the company.
2. Main objects of the company.
3. Classes of shares and debentures.
4. Name, address and occupation of the signatories to the memorandum.
5. Details of the borrowing powers of the company.
6. Name, address and occupation of the directors and managing director.
7. Name and address of the promoters.
8. Minimum subscription.
9. Time of opening and closing of subscription.
10. The amount payable on application and allotment of each class of shares.
11. Name of underwriters.
12. Details of preliminary expenses.

Companies which do not want to issue a prospectus may submit a statement in lieu of prospectus to the Registrar of Companies. It is a copy of the prospectus but is not issued to the public.

Question 3.
It is often said that Memorandum of Association and Articles of Association are the first and second important documents of a company. As a commerce student can you differentiate between these two documents? (6)
Answer:

Memorandum of Association	Articles of Association
It defines the object for which the company is formed	They are rules of internal management of the company. They indicate how the objectives of the company are to be achieved
It is the main document of the company	It is a subsidiary document of the Memorandum of Association
It defines the relationship of the company with outsiders	It defines the relationship of the company with members
Acts beyond the Memorandum of Association are invalid and cannot be ratified.	Acts beyond the Articles of Association can be ratified by the members. But they do not violate memorandum
Filing of Memorandum is compulsory	Filing of Articles is not compulsory for public company
Alteration of Memorandum is very difficult	It can be altered by passing a special resolution

Plus One Formation of a Company Eight Mark Questions and Answers

Question 1.
Explain the steps in the incorporation of a company. (8)
Answer:
Incorporation:
A company comes into existence only when it is registered with the Registrar of Companies. For this purpose the promoter has to take the following steps:
Steps for Incorporation

1. Application for incorporation:
Promoters make an application for the incorporation of the company to the Registrar of companies.

2. Filing of documents:
The following documents must be filed with the Registrar of Companies for incorporation.

• The Memorandum of Association duly stamped, signed and witnessed
• Articles of Association duly stamped, signed and witnessed
• Written consent of the proposed directors
• Agreement, if any, with proposed managing or whole time director
• A copy of the Registrar’s letter approving the name of the company.
• Statutory declaration
• A notice about the exact address of the registered office.
• Documentary evidence of payment of registration fees.

The Registrar verifies the entire document submitted. If he is satisfied then he enters the name of the company in his Register. After the registration, the Registrar issues a Certificate called Certificate of Incorporation. This is called the birth certificate of the company. With effect from November 1, 2000, the Registrar of Companies allots a CIN (Corporate Identity Number) to the Company.

Effect of the Certificate of Incorporation:
Certificate of Incorporation is the conclusive evidence of the legal existence of the company. A private company can commence its business after receiving Certificate of Incorporation. The certificate of incorporation is the birth certificate of the company.

Question 2.
Explain the contents of Memorandum of Association.

Answer:
Memorandum of Association: It is the charter or magnacarta of the company. It defines the objects of the company and provides the framework beyond which the company cannot operate. It lays down the relationship of the company with outside world.

Memorandum of Association must be printed, divided into paragraphs, numbered consecutively. The Memorandum of Association must be signed by at least seven persons in case of a public company and by two persons in case of a private company.

Contents of Memorandum of Association:

1. The name clause:
Under this clause the name of the company is mentioned. A company can select any name subject to the following restrictions.

• The proposed name should not be identical with the name of another company
• A name which can mislead the public
• In case of a public company the name should end with the word ‘Limited’ and in case of a private company the name should end with the word ‘Private Limited’
• The name must not directly or indirectly imply any participation of the Central or State Govt.
• The name must not suggest any connection or patronage of a national hero
• It should not include the word co operative.

2. Registered office clause:
This clause contains the name of the state, in which the registered office of the company is proposed to be situated. It must be informed to the Registrar within thirty days of the incorporation of the company.

3. Objects clause:
This is the most important clause of the memorandum. It defines the purpose for which the company is formed. A company is not legally entitled to undertake an activity, which is beyond the objects stated in this clause.

4. Liability clause:
It states that the liability of members is limited to the face value of shares held by them or the amount guaranteed to be paid on winding up.

5. Capital clause:
This clause specifies the maximum capital which the company will be authorised to raise through, the issue of shares.

6. Association clause:
In this clause, the signatories to the Memorandum of Association state their intention to be associated with the company and also give their consent to purchase qualification shares.

Question 3.
Mr. Hemand, a Gulf returnee, intends to start a business in the form of private limited company. But he lias no clear idea about the business opportunities in Kerala and the formalities to be followed in the formation of company. (8)

1. As a commerce student can you suggest a specialised person who would undertake all activities for the formation of a company?
2. Explain the functions of those specialised persons.

Answer:

Promotion:
Promotion is the first stage in the formation of a company. The identification of business opportunities, analysis of its prospects and initiating steps to form a joint stock company is called promotion. The person who undertakes to form a company is called promoter.

Functions of a Promoter:

1. Identification of business opportunity:
The first and foremost activity of a promoter is to identify a business opportunity.

2. Feasibility studies:
After identifying a business opportunity, the promoters undertake some feasibility studies to determine the viability and profitability of the proposed activity.

• Technical feasibility – To determine whether the raw materials or technology is easily available
• Financial feasibility – To determine the total estimated cost of the project
• Economic feasibility – To determine the I profitability of the proposed project

3. Name approval:
After selecting the name of company the promoters submit an application to the Registrar of companies for its approval. The selected name is not the same or identical to an existing company.

4. Fixing up signatories to the Memorandum of Association:
Promoters have to decide about the members who will be signing the Memorandum of Association of the proposed company.

5. Appointment of professional:
Promoters appoint merchant bankers, auditors, etc. to assist them in the preparation of necessary documents.

6. Preparation of necessary documents:
The promoters prepare certain legal documents which are to be submitted to the Registrar of companies. They are

• Memorandum of Association
• Articles of Association,
• Consent of proposed Directors
• Agreement, if any, with proposed managing or whole time director
• Statutory declaration

Position of Promoters:
The promoter is neither an agent nor a trustee of the company. The promoter stands in the fiduciary relationship with the company. He should not make any secret profits out of the dealings. Any, such gains are to be disclosed. The promoter must act honestly, in good faith and in the best interest of the company.

The promoter is personally liable for all the preliminary contracts with the other parties before incorporation. The promoter is also liable for any omission of facts or false statements in the prospectus.

Students can Download Chapter 2 Animal Kingdom Notes, Plus One Zoology Notes helps you to revise the complete Kerala State Syllabus and score more marks in your examinations.

Kerala Plus One Zoology Notes Chapter 2 Animal Kingdom

BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION:
The fundamental features used in animal classification are:

1. Arrangement of cells
2. body symmetry
3. nature of coelom
4. patterns of digestive
5. circulatory or reproductive systems.

Levels of Organisation:

In sponges, the cells are arranged as loose cell aggregates, i.e. they exhibit cellular level of organisation. Some division of labour (activities) occur among the cells.

In Echinoderms and Chordates, organs are associated to form functional systems, it is concerned with a specific physiological function. This is called organ system level of organisation.

For example, the digestive system in Platyhelminthes has only a single opening to the outside of the body that serves as both mouth and anus, and is hence called incomplete. A complete digestive system has two openings, mouth and anus.
The circulatory system are of two types:

(i) Open type in which the blood is pumped out of the heart and the cells and tissues are directly bathed in it. (ii) Closed type in which the blood is circulated through a series of vessels of varying diameters (arteries, veins and capillaries).

Symmetry:
Animals can be categorised on the basis of their symmetry.

Sponges are asymmetrical, i.e., any plane that passes through the centre does not divide them into equal halves

When any plane passing through the central axis of the body divides the organism into two identical halves, it is called radial symmetry. eg: Coelenterates, ctenophores and echinoderms

Animals like annelids, arthropods, etc. where the body is divided into identical left and right halves in only one plane, It is called bilateral symmetry.

Diploblastic and Triploblastic Organisation:

Animals in which the cells are arranged in two embryonic layers, an external ectoderm and an internal endoderm, are called diploblastic animals, eg: coelenterates.

An undifferentiated layer, mesoglea, is present in between the ectoderm and the endoderm. The developing embryo has a third germinal layer, mesoderm, in between the ectoderm and endoderm, they are called triploblastic animals eg: platyhelminthes to chordates

Coelom:
The body cavity, which is lined by mesoderm is called coelom. Animals possessing coelom are called coelomates e.g.annelids, molluscs, arthropods, echinoderms, hemichordates and chordates. In some animals, the body cavity is not lined by mesoderm, instead, the mesoderm is present as scattered pouches in between the ectoderm and endoderm.

Such animals are called pseudocoelomates, eg: aschelminthes. The animals in which the body cavity is absent are called acoelomates, eg: platyhelminthes

Segmentation:

In some animals, the body is externally and internally divided into segments. For example, in earthworm, the body shows this pattern called metameric segmentation and the phenomenon is known as metamerism.

Notochord:
Notochord is a mesodermally derived rod-like structure formed on the dorsal side during embryonic development in some animals. Animals with notochord are called chordates and those animals which do not form this structure are called non-chordates, eg: porifera to echinoderms.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS:

Phylum – Porifera:
Members are commonly Known as sponges. They are marine and asymmetrical animals. These are primitive multicellular animals and have cellular level of organisation.

1. Sponges have a water transport or canal system. Water enters through minute pores (ostia) in the body wall into a central cavity, spongocoel (Choanocytes or collar cells line the spongocoel and the canals), from where it goes out through the osculum.
2. This pathway of water transport is helpful in food gathering, respiratory exchange and removal of waste.
3. Digestion is intracellular. The body is supported by a skeleton made up of spicules or spongin fibres.
4. Sexes are not separate (hermaphrodite)
5. Sponges reproduce asexually by fragmentation
6. Fertilisation is internal and development include larval stage which is.morphologically distinct from the adult.

Examples: Sycon (Scypha), Spongilla (Fresh water sponge) and Euspongia (Bath sponge).

Phylum – Coelenterata (Cnidaria):
They are aquatic, marine and radially symmetrical animals
1. The name cnidaria is derived from the cnidoblasts or cnidocytes present on the tentacles and the body. Cnidoblasts are used for anchorage, defense and for the capture of prey.

2. Cnidarians are dipioblastic animals. They have a central gastrovascular cavity with a single opening, hypostome.

3. Digestion is extracellular and intracellular. For example , corals have a skeleton composed of calcium carbonate.

4. Cnidarians exhibit two basic body forms called polyp and medusa

Structure of polyp and medusa:
Polyps are sessile and cylindrical form eg: Hydra, Adamsia, etc. whereas, medusa are umbrella-shaped and free-swimming like Aurelia or jelly fish. They exhibit alternation of generation (Metagenesis), i.e. polyps produce medusae asexually and medusae form the polyps sexually (eg: Obelia).

Examples: Physalia (Portuguese man-of-war), Adamsia (Sea anemone),Pennatula (Sea-pen), Gorgonia (Sea-fan) and Meandrina (Brain coral).

Phylum – Ctenophora:
They incude sea walnuts or comb jellies are marine, radially symmetrical, dipioblastic organisms with tissue level of organisation.

1. The body bears eight external rows of ciliated comb plates, which help in locomotion
2. Digestion is both extracellular and intracellular.
3. Bioluminescence is well-marked in ctenophores.
4. Sexes are not separate. Reproduction takes place only by sexual means.
5. Fertilisation is external with indirect development.

Examples: pleurobrachia and ctenoplana.

Phylum – Platyhelminthes:

1. They have flattened body and called as flatworms
2. Flatworms are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and acoelomate animals with organ level of organisation.
3. Hooks and suckers are present in the parasitic forms. Some of them absorb nutrients from the host directly through their body surface.
4. Specialised cells called flame cells help in osmoregulation and excretion.
5. Sexes are not separate.
6. Fertilisation is internal and development is through many larval stages. Some members like Planaria possess high regeneration capacity.

Examples: (a) Taenia (Tapeworm), (b) Fasciola (Liver fluke).

Phylum – Aschelminthes:
The body is circular and called as roundworms. They may be freeliving, aquatic and terrestrial or parasitic in plants and animals.

1. Roundworms have organ-system level of body organisation.
2. They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and pseudocoelomate animals.
3. Alimentary canal is complete and called as muscular pharynx. An excretory tube removes body wastes from the body cavity through the excretory pore.
4. Sexes are separate (dioecious)
5. Fertilisation is internal and development may be direct or indirect.

Examples Ascaris (Round Worm), Wuchereria (Filaria worm), Ancylostoma (Hookworm).

Phylum – Annelida:
They may be aquatic (marine and fresh water) orterrestrial; free-living, and sometimes parasitic.

1. They exhibit organ-system level of body organisation and bilateral symmetry. They are triploblastic, metamerically segmented and coelomate animals.
2. Their body surface is distinctly marked out into segments or metameres and hence, the phylum called as Annelida.
3. Aquatic annelids like Nereis possess lateral appendages, parapodia, which help in swimming.
4. A closed circulatory system is present.
5. Nephridia help in osmoregulation and excretion.
6. Neural system consists of paired ganglia connected by lateral nerves to a double ventral nerve cord.
7. Nereis, an aquatic form, is dioecious, but earthworms and leeches are monoecious.
8. Reproduction is sexual. Examples: Nereis, Pheretima (Earthworm) and Hirudinaria (Blood sucking leech).
   

Phylum – Arthropoda:
This is the largest phylum includes insects.

1. They have organ-system level of organisation.
2. They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic. segmented and coelomate animals.
3. The body of arthropods is covered by chitinous exoskeleton.
4. The body consists of head, thoraxand abdomen. They have jointed appendages (arthros-joint, poda-appendages).
5. Respiratory organs are gills, book gills, book lungs or tracheal system.
6. Circulatory system is of open type. Sensory organs like antennae, eyes (compound and simple),
7. statocysts or balance organs are present.
8. Excretion takes place through malpighian tubules. They are mostly dioecious.
9. Fertilisation is usually internal.
10. They are mostly oviparous.

Example:

1. Economically important insects: Apis (Honey bee), Bombyx (Silkworm), Laccifer(Lac insect)
2. Vectors: Anopheles, Culexand Aedes(Mosquitoes)
3. Gregarious pest: Locusta (Locust)
4. Living fossil: Limulus (King crab).

Phylum – Mollusca:
This is the second largest animal phylum

1. Molluscs are terrestrial or aquatic (marine or freshwater) having an organ- system level of organisation.
2. They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and coelomate animals.
3. Body is covered by a calcareous shell and is unsegmented with a distinct head, muscular foot and visceral hump.
4. The space between the hump and the mantle is called the mantle cavity in which feather-like gills are present. They have respiratory and excretory functions.
5. The anterior head region has sensory tentacles. The mouth contains a file¬like rasping organ for feeding, called radula.
6. They are usually dioecious and oviparous with indirect development.

Examples: Pila (Apple snail), Pinctada (Pearl oyster), Sepia (Cuttlefish), Loligo (Squid), Octopus (Devil fish), Aplysia (Seahare), Dentalium (Tusk shell) and Chaetopleura (Chiton).

Phylum – Echinodermata:

1. These animals have an endoskeleton of calcareous ossicles,
2. All are marine with organ-system level of organisation.
3. The adult echinoderms are radially symmetrical but larvae are bilaterally symmetrical.
4. They shows water vascular system which helps in locomotion, capture and transport of food and respiration.
5. They are triploblastic and coelomate animals.
6. Digestive system is complete with mouth on the lower (ventral) side and anus on the upper (dorsal) side.
7. An excretory system is absent. Sexes are separate.
8. (Reproduction is sexual. Fertilisation is usually external.
9. Development is indirect with free-swimming larva.

Examples: Asterias (Starfish), Echinus (Sea urchin), Antedon (Sea lily), Cucumaria (Sea cucumber) and Ophiura (Brittle star).

Phylum – Hemichordata:
Hemichordata is placed as a separate phylum under non-chordata.

1. This phylum consists of a small group of worm-like marine animals with organ-system level of organisation.
2. They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and coelomate animals.
3. The body is cylindrical and is composed of an anterior proboscis, a collar and a long trunk.
4. Circulatory system is of open type.
5. Respiration takes place through gills.
6. Excretory organ is proboscis gland. Sexes are separate.
7. Fertilisation is external. Development is indirect. Examples: Balanoglossus and Saccoglossus.

Phylum – Chordata:
It is characterised by the presence of a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord and paired pharyngeal gill slits These are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate with organ- system level of organisation. They possess a post anal tail and a closed circulatory system.
Comparison of Chordates and IMon-chordates:

Phylum Chordata is divided into three subphyla:

1. Urochordata or Tunicata
2. Cephalochordata &
3. Vertebrata.

Subphyla Urochordata and Cephalochordata are often referred to as protochordates and are exclusively marine. In Urochordata, notochord is present only in larval tail, while in Cephalochordata, it extends from head to tail region. Examples: Urochordata – Ascidia, Salpa.Doliolum; Cephalochordata – Branchiostoma (Amphioxus or Lancelet).

All vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates.why?
The members of subphylum Vertebrata possess notochord during the embryonic period. The notochord is replaced by a cartilaginous or bony vertebral column in the adult. Thus all vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates.

Vertebrates have a ventral muscular heart with two, three or four chambers, kidneys for excretion and osmoregulation and paired appendages which may be fins or limbs.
The subphylum Vertebrata is further divided as follows:

Class – Cyclostomata:

1. All living members of the class Cyclostomata are ectoparasites on some fishes. They have gill slits for respiration.
2. Cyclosiomes have a sucking and circular mouth without jaws
3. Their body is devoid of scales and paired fins
4. Cranium and vertebra! column are cartilaginous. Circulation is of closed type.
5. Cyclostomes are marine but migrate for spawning to freshwater. After spawning, within a few days, they die. Their larvae, after metamorphosis, return to the ocean.

Examples: Petromyzon (Lamprey) and Myxine (Hagfish).

Class – Chondrichthyes:

1. have cartilaginous endoskeleton Mouth is located ventrally.
2. Notochord is persistent throughout life.
3. Gil! slits are separate and without operculum (gill cover).
4. The skin is tough, containing minute placoid scales.
5. Teeth are modified placoid scales
6. These animals are predaceous.
7. Due to the absence of air bladder, they have to swim constantly to avoid sinking.
8. Heart is two-chambered (one auricle and one ventricle). ,
9. Some of them have electric organs (e.g., Torpedo) and some possess poison sting (e g., Trygon).
10. They are cold-blooded (poikilothermous) animals, i.e., they lack the capacity to regulate their body temperature.
11. Sexes are separate.
12. In males pelvic fins bearclaspers.
13. They have internal fertilisation and many of them are viviparous.

Examples: Scoliodon (Dog fish), Pristis (Sawfish), Carcharodon (Great white shark), Trygon (Sting ray).

Class- Osteichthyes:
It includes both marine and fresh water fishes with bony endoskeleton.

1. They have four pairs of gills which are covered by an operculum on each side.
2. Skin is covered with cycloid/ctenoid scales.
3. Air bladder is present which regulates buoyancy.
4. Heart is two chambered (one auricle and one ventricle).
5. They are cold-blooded animals. Sexes are separate.
6. Fertilisation is usually external.
7. They are mostly oviparous and development is direct.

Examples: Marine – Exocoetus (Flying fish), Hippocampus (Sea horse); Freshwater – Labeo Rohu), Catla (Katla), Clarias (Magur); Aquarium – Betta (Fighting fish), Pterophyllum (Angel fish).

Class – Amphibia:
Amphibians can live in aquatic as well as terrestrial habitats.

1. Most of them have two pairs of limbs. Body is divisible into head and trunk.
2. The amphibian skin is moist (without scales). The eyes have eyelids.
3. A tympanum represents the ear.
4. Alimentary canal, urinary and reproductive tracts open into a common chamber called cloaca which opens to the exterior.
5. Respiration is by gills, lungs and through skin.
6. The heart is three chambered (two auricles and one ventricle).
7. These are cold-blooded animals.
8. Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is external.
9. They are oviparous and development is direct or indirect.

Examples: Bufo (Toad), Rana (Frog), Hyla (Tree frog), Salamandra (Salamander), Ichthyophis (Limbless amphibia).

Class-Reptilia:
The class name represents crawling mode of locomotion.(Latin, repere or reptum, to creep or crawl).

1. They are mostly terrestrial animals and their body is covered by dry and cornified skin, epidermal scales or scutes.
2. They do not have external ear openings.
3. Tympanum represents ear.
4. Heart is usually three-chambered, but four-chambered in crocodiles.
5. Reptiles are poikilotherms.
6. Snakes and lizards shed their scales as skin cast.
7. Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is internal.
8. They are oviparous and development is direct.

Examples: Chelone (Turtle), Testudo (Tortoise), Chameleon (Tree lizard),Calotes (Garden lizard), Crocodilus (Crocodile), Alligator (Alligator). Hemidactylus (Wall lizard), Poisonous snakes – Naja (Cobra), Bangarus (Krait), Vipera (Viper).

Class-Aves:

The characteristic features of Aves (birds) are:

1. The forelimbs are modified into wings.
2. They possess beak
3. The hind limbs have scales and are modified for walking, swimming or clasping the tree branches.
4. Skin is dry without glands except the oil gland at the base of the tail.
5. Endoskeleton is fully ossified (bony) and the long bones are hollow with air cavities (pneumatic).
6. The digestive tract of birds has additional chambers, the crop and gizzard.
7. Heart is completely four chambered.
8. They are warm-blooded (homoiothermic) animals, i.e.,they are able to maintain a constant body temperature.
9. Respiration is by lungs.
10. Air sacs connected to lungs supplement respiration.
11. sexes are separate. Fertilisation is internal.
12. They are oviparous and development is direct.

Example: Corvus (Crow), Columba (Pigeon), Psittacula (Parrot), Struthio (Ostrich), Pavo (Peacock), modytes (Penguin), Neophron (Vulture).

Class – Mammalia:

1. 1. The characteristic is the presence of milk producing glands (mammary glands) They have two pairs of limbs, adapted for walking, running, climbing, burrowing, swimming or flying
2. The skin of mammals is unique in possessing hair
3. extemal ears or pinnae are present.
4. Different types of teeth are present in the jaw.
5. Heart is four chambered. They are homoiothermous.
6. Respiration is by lungs. Sexes are separate and fertilisation is internal.
7. They are viviparous with few exceptions and development is direct.

Examples: Oviparous – Ornithorhynchus{Platypus)\Viviparous – Macropus (Kangaroo), Pteropus (Flying fox), Camelus (Camel), Macaca(Monkey), Rattus (Rat), Canis (Dog), Fells (Cat), Elephas (Elephant), Equus (Horse), Delphinus (Common dolphin), Balaenoptera (Blue whale), Panthera tigris(Tiger), Panthera leo(Lion).