Class 10 Biology Chapter 6 Notes Kerala Syllabus Biology and Technology Questions and Answers

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SSLC Biology Chapter 6 Notes Questions and Answers Pdf Biology and Technology

SCERT Class 10 Biology Chapter 6 Biology and Technology Notes Pdf

SSLC Biology Chapter 6 Questions and Answers – Let Us Assess

Question 1.
Which of the following statements about recombinant DNA technology is correct?
I. Restriction enzymes are used to cut the DNA of an organism.
II. Ligase enzymes join the cut DNA fragments together.
III. Vectors are usually bacterial plasmids.
IV. When recombinant DNA enters a host cell, it does not replicate.
a) I and II only
b) I, II, III only
c) I, III, IV only
d) I, II, III, IV all
Answer:
b) I, II, III only

Question 2.
Identify A, B, and C and choose the correct option.
A: A technology that joins together DNA segments from two or more different organisms
B: A technology used to locate genes in DNA
C: A technology used to identify individuals by analysing the arrangement of nucleotides in DNA

i) A – Recombinant DNA Technology, B – Gene Mapping, C – DNA Fingerprinting
ii) A – Human Genome Project, B – Gene Therapy, C – CRISPR Technology
iii) A – Recombinant DNA Technology, B – DNA Fingerprinting, C – CRISPR Technology
iv) A – Gene Therapy, B – Gene Mapping, C – Human Genome Project
Answer:
i) A – Recombinant DNA Technology, B – Gene Mapping, C – DNA Fingerprinting

Question 3.
What is the importance of the host cell in recombinant DNA technology? Analyse how this technology would be limited if there were no host cells.
Answer:
The importance of the host cell in recombinant DNA technology:

• Multiplication: The host cell makes many copies of the recombinant DNA through cell division. This process is called cloning. When a new DNA molecule is introduced into 100,000 cells, the DNA multiplies in each cell to make many copies.

• Expression: The host cell helps the gene contained in the recombinant DNA (for example, the gene for making insulin) to fulfil its purpose. The host cell’s RNA and ribosomes produce the necessary protein (for example, insulin) according to the instructions of this gene.

Without a host cell, recombinant DNA technology would not be able to exist in its current form. All of the following would be limited:

• Quantitative limitation: Recombinant DNA is produced in very small quantities. We get this DNA in sufficient quantities because it multiplies in the host cell. Without a host cell, we would not be able to produce the required amount of DNA or protein.

• Protein production limitation: Recombinant DNA technology is used to produce proteins such as insulin, vaccines, and enzymes. Without a host cell, these genes cannot make proteins.

• Gene therapy limitation: In gene therapy, a new gene is introduced into a patient’s cells to try to reverse the disease. Without a host cell, this new gene would not be able to function in the patient’s body.

Question 4.
Analyse how the information provided by the Human Genome Project will help in the future development of recombinant DNA technology, CRISPR editing technology and Al in biology.
Answer:
a) Human Genome Project (HGP): The Human Genome Project helped to understand the complete structure of human DNA. It provides information about the location of each gene, their function, and how changes in them cause diseases.

b) Recombinant DNA Technology: Recombinant DNA technology helps to cut out the desired genes and make new combinations using the information provided by HGP. For example, the gene that produces insulin was found and transferred to bacteria to produce large amounts of insulin.

c) CRISPR Editing Technology: CRISPR is the next generation of recombinant DNA technology. It makes gene editing easier, faster, and more precise. It helps to edit any part of the human genome. Using the information obtained from HGP, it is possible to accurately identify genes that cause diseases and use CRISPR to correct them. This will make a big difference in the treatment of hereditary diseases in the future.

d) AI in Biology: AI plays a major role in integrating these three technologies. AI helps in analysing large data sets like the Human Genome Project and finding hidden patterns and relationships in it. AI can be used to predict diseases and develop personalised treatments. AI can analyse a patient’s genome and suggest the most suitable medicine for them.

Question 5.
How can the use of genome data be helpful in prescribing drugs that are appropriate for the patient?
Answer:
Genomic data can be used to understand how a drug will work in a patient.

Each person’s genome contains genes that control enzymes responsible for breaking down drugs. Small differences (called genetic variations) in these genes can cause drugs to be broken down very quickly in some people and very slowly in others. Analysing a patient’s genome can help determine which group they belong to and aid in determining the right dose of the drug. Some drugs cause serious side effects only in some people. The genetic variations that cause these side effects can be found in genomic data. Some drugs work in one group of patients but not in another. By studying their genomes, it is possible to find out which patients are more likely to benefit from a particular drug.

Question 6.
Analyse the fundamental similarities and differences between recombinant DNA technology and gene therapy.
Answer:
Similarities:

• Use of genetic molecules: Both technologies are based on genetic molecules such as genes, DNA, or RNA.
• Use of vectors: Both technologies use vectors such as viruses to deliver new genes into cells.

Differences:

Peculiarities	Recombinant DNA technology	Gene therapy
Main aim	Creating new organisms or producing large amounts of proteins	Modifying cells in a patient’s body to treat genetic diseases
Method of application	Genes are transferred from one organism to another, often resulting in changes in the behaviour of an organism.	A healthy gene is directly transferred into a patient’s own cells. It is used only to treat the patient.
Examples	Human insulin-producing bacteria, insect-resistant BT cotton	Treating hereditary diseases like cystic fibrosis and haemophilia.

Question 7.
Observe the illustration and answer the questions.

a) Name the technology indicated in the illustration.
b) Identify and name A and B.
c) What is the role of A and B?
Answer:
a) The illustration refers to the CRISPR-Cas 9 gene editing technology.

b) A is the guide RNA (gRNA) and B is the Cas 9 protein.

c) CRISPR uses an enzyme called Cas9 (B) as scissors to cut DNA. It also includes an RNA that identifies the DNA segment to be cut. This is called as guide RNA (gRNA) (A)

Question 8.
Imagine that you have received a DNA fingerprinting report in a forensic case. Explain how the perpetrator can be identified by analysing the patterns in this report. How can this technology be used to identify the unidentified dead bodies found in natural disasters?
Answer:
To identify a criminal from a DNA report, repeated DNA patterns at specific locations are analysed, comparing the number and length of repeating DNA sequences between crime scene evidence and suspect samples. For unidentified bodies after a natural disaster, this technology identifies victims by comparing their DNA profiles to reference samples from their families or other biological material found at the scene.

Question 9.
How does artificial intelligence (AI) help data analysis and discoveries in biological research?
Answer:
AI plays a key role in many areas of biological research, such as disease diagnosis, drug discovery, and genetic engineering
BIOLOGY AND ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)

• AI plays a major role in many areas of biological study, including disease diagnosis, drug discovery and genetic engineering.
• Bioinformatics is a new scientific discipline of science that analyses biological data by combining the latest technological disciplines such as computer science, mathematics and statistics.

Potential applications of artificial intelligence (AI) in biological fields:

• Diagnosis, treatment: For discovering new drugs, for predicting the effectiveness of chemical substances and recommendation of the most suitable treatment.
• Personalised medicine: analyses each individual’s genetic makeup and health information and recommends the most suitable treatment regimens for them.
• Genome sequencing: Utilised in gene editing technology for the treatment of genetic disorders.
• Improving agriculture: Monitors the health of the soil, predicts the diseases that might affect crops.
• Pollution: Predicts air and water pollution levels and recommends mitigation strategies.
• Bioinformatics: Analyses large amounts of genetic data and suggests simplification strategies

Question 10.
Prepare a note on the following concepts to present in a seminar on the possibilities of technology for environmental conservation:
i) Data Collection
ii) Biodiversity Conservation
iii) Pollution Control
Answer:
Technology plays a crucial role in environmental protection, data collection, biodiversity conservation, and pollution control. Technologies such as satellite remote sensing, drones, and sensors can be used to monitor the condition of forests and water resources in real time and quickly identify the source of pollution. Gene banking technology can be used to preserve the genes of endangered species. Similarly, biodiversity can be preserved by developing resistant plants and animals. In addition, microbiology can be used to remove wastes such as oil through bioremediation and reduce pollution by using renewable energy sources.

Biology Class 10 Chapter 6 Notes Kerala Syllabus Biology and Technology

Question 1.
How is genetic constitution altered through recombinant DNA technology?
Answer:

Answers to the indicators on page 170 of the textbook
Question 2.
Recombinant DNA Technology:
Answer:
Recombinant DNA technology combines DNA segments from two or more different organisms to form recombinant DNA.

Question 3.
Enzymes and their functions:
Answer:
a) Restriction Endonuclease Enzyme: The genetic scissor that cuts a specific gene
b) Ligase enzyme: Genetic glue that joins two DNA segments.

Question 4.
Vectors-fiinction:
Answer:
Vectors carry the genes and a host cell into which the recombinant DNA is inserted, (circular DNA), and some viruses are used as gene carriers or vectors)

Question 5.
Various stages of recombinant DNA technology:
Answer:

• Cuts the desirable gene from human DNA
• Cuts the plasmid and removes a specific part
• The cut human gene is ligated to the plasmid
• The plasmid with the incorporated human gene is inserted into the host cell.
• As the inserted genes become active in the cell, the desired products are formed.

Question 6.
This technology is widely used in various fields. An example for this is the production of human insulin using bacteria. What are the other fields in which this technology is used?

a) Medicine

• Hormones: This technology helps in the production of important hormones such as human insulin and human growth hormone.
• Vaccines: Vaccines are developed against diseases such as hepatitis B using the DNA of pathogenic microorganisms.
• Gene therapy: This technology is used to replace damaged genes with healthy genes to treat certain inherited diseases.

b) Agriculture

• Genetically Modified Crops: Recombinant DNA technology is used to produce crops that are resistant to pests and diseases. This helps reduce the use of chemical pesticides. For example, BT Cotton.
• Increased Yield: Crops are developed that are more resistant to drought and adverse weather conditions.
• Nutrient-rich crops: This is used to produce plants with higher nutrient content. For example, Golden Rice with increased levels of vitamin A.

c) Industry

• Enzyme production: This technology helps produce enzymes needed to make cheese, biofuels, and detergents.
• Pollution control: Genetically modified microorganisms can be used to remove pollutants such as oil and mercury from the environment.

Question 7.
Is CRISPR technology the only technology used in gene editing? Find out.
Answer:
No, CRISPR technology is not the only technology used for gene editing; other technologies such as zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs), transcription factor-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and mega nucleases existed before it. The CRISPR-Cas9 system has become very popular due to its ease of use, low cost, and precise operation.

Answers to the indicators on page 171 of the textbook
Question 8.
CRISPR technology:
Answer:
CRISPR is a modern technique used to edit DNA with extreme precision.

Question 9.
Guide RNA, Cas9 enzyme:
Answer:
CRISPR technology uses an enzyme called Cas9 as scissors to cut DNA. It also includes an RNA that identifies the DNA segment to be cut. This is called as guide RNA (gRNA).

Question 10.
Gene editing:
Answer:
The arrangement of nitrogen bases in DNA can be edited in a way that is necessary to change the characteristics of an organism. This can remove unwanted traits or add new traits. This is called gene editing.

Answers to the indicators on page 172 of the textbook
Question 11.
The various fields in which beneficial changes are brought about, and the resultant changes.
Answer:
Agriculture: It has been possible to produce plants that are resistant to pests, weeds, and viruses. It is possible to ensure high production efficiency.
Health: It is also helpful in the production of hormones like insulin and vaccines, as well as in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases.

Question 12.
The changes that can be brought about in nature by genetically modified organisms:
Answer:

• If GMOs have a higher survival rate than normal organisms, they may multiply rapidly in nature. This could threaten native flora and fauna and lead to their extinction.
• Some genetically modified crops may have a negative impact on soil structure and microorganisms.
• Continued use of genetically modified crops may lead to pests developing resistance to them. This may force us to use more powerful pesticides.
• Genetically modified foods may cause allergies in some people.

Question 13.
Has the genome information of other organisms been discovered? Find out.
Answer:
In addition to the human genome, the genomes of thousands of animals, plants, bacteria, and fungi have already been analysed, and data collected.
Major organisms whose genomes have been studied include:

• Animals: dog, cat, monkey, rat, cow, chicken, pig, etc.
• Plants: rice, wheat, cassava, apple, grape, etc.
• Microorganisms: various bacteria, yeast, and viruses.

Answers to the indicators on page 173 of the textbook
Question 14.
Genome:
Answer:
The genome is the sum total of all the genetic materials in an organism.

Question 15.
Gene Mapping:
Answer:
Gene mapping is a technique used to locate genes in DNA.

Question 16.
Human Genome Project:
Answer:
The Human Genome Project was a global scientific initiative that began in 1990 and was completed in 2003, with the goal of completely understanding the information in the human genome.

Question 17.
List the various steps of stem cell therapy.
Answer:

• The stem cells that produce blood cells are collected.
• The active gene is incorporated into the stem cells using viruses as vectors.
• The stem cells incorporated with the gene are injected to the patient.

Question 18.
Analyse the illustration 6.5 a and find out how the relationship between parents and offspring is identified and also analyse illustration 6.5 b and identify the person to whom the sample resembles.

Answer:
Illustration 6.5a Analysis:
A child gets half of their DNA from their mother and half from their father. This will be reflected in the DNA fingerprinting.

1. Identify the individuals: Look at which lane the mother, father, and child DNA samples are in the image.
2. Compare the bands: Carefully examine each DNA band in the child’s lane.
3.  Find the relationship: Each of the child’s DNA bands must be in exactly the same position in either the mother’s lane or the father’s lane. That is, each band in the child must match either the mother’s or the father’s band. If the child does not have a single band in either of the parents, the child is not their biological child.

Illustration 6.5b Analysis:
Each person has a unique DNA structure (except for twins). This principle is used in forensic cases to identify criminals.

1. Identify the samples: Look at which row in the image is the sample from the crime scene and which row is the sample from the suspect.
2. Compare the patterns: Carefully compare the pattern of DNA bands of the unknown sample (labelled sample) with the pattern of each suspect.
3. Find an exact match: The person whose band pattern of the unknown sample matches the band pattern of the person exactly (all bands fall in the same position) is the owner of the sample. If not even one band matches, then the sample does not belong to him.

The sample in the given illustration matches that of person 2.

Answers to the indicators on page 176 of the textbook
Question 19.
DNA Fingerprinting:
Answer:
The technology that is used to analyse the sequence of nucleotides in DNA and to identify individuals accordingly is called DNA fingerprinting.

Question 20.
DNA Fingerprinting – basis:
Answer:
The basis of DNA fingerprinting is the differences in the repeating sequences in each person’s DNA. Although these repeating sequences are found in everyone, there are large differences in their number and arrangement from person to person.

Question 21.
Application possibilities of DNA fingerprinting:
Answer:
The possibilities of DNA fingerprinting are endless in forensic science, in proving paternity and relationships, in healthcare diagnostics, organ donation, and in crop management in agriculture.

Question 22.
Match with the sample and the culprit in the illustration:
Answer:
The person whose band pattern of the unknown sample in the illustration matches the band pattern of the person completely (all bands fall in the same position) is the owner of the sample. If not even one band matches, then the sample does not belong to him. The sample in the given illustration matches that of person 2.

Answers to the indicators on page 177 of the textbook
Question 23.
Microbiome:
Answer:
The human microbiome is the collection of microorganisms and their genes that inhabit and interact within the human body.

Question 24.
Microbiome Project:
Answer:
To develop knowledge about microorganisms, the Human Microbiome Project (HMP) was launched by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the United States in 2007.

Question 25.
Services provided by Microbiome:
Answer:

1. Improves digestion
2. Boosts immunity
3. Protects mental health
4. Prevents obesity
5. Produces vitamins and other nutrients.

Question 26.
Organise a seminar on the topic Biotechnology Opportunities and Challenges.
Answer:
Hint: (Below is an outline for organising a seminar on this topic. You can present the seminar using this outline).

Seminar: Biotechnology, Opportunities and Challenges

Introduction

• Importance of Biotechnology
• Major recent advances in this field
• Need to discuss the opportunities and challenges these technologies offer to humanity and nature.

Possibilities (Technologies and their benefits)
a) Genetic engineering:

• In health: gene therapy, vaccine production, production of artificial insulin.
• In agriculture: production of plants with higher yields and immunity (for example, BT cotton).

b) DNA fingerprinting:

• Forensics: helps to find criminals and identify bodies.
• Relationships: used to determine paternity and other family relationships.

c) Stem cell research:

• The potential to grow new cells and organs.
• Helps to regenerate damaged cells and treat and cure diseases.

Challenges (topics to discuss)
a) Genetically modified organisms (GMOs):

• Potential harmful changes they can cause in nature.
• Potential health problems in humans from eating genetically modified plants.

b) Ethical issues:
• Ethical concerns about modifying human behavior and abilities through gene editing.

c) Illicit use:

• Potential for misuse of these technologies to produce biological weapons.
• Concerns about the leakage of individuals’ genetic information.

Conclusion

• Biological technologies are a great opportunity, but it must be ensured that they are safe and ethical.
• The need to raise public awareness about this technology.
• The importance of society working together to use these technologies only for good.

Std 10 Biology Chapter 6 Notes – Extended Activities

Question 1.
Prepare a short video on the topic ‘The Role of the Microbiome in a healthy lifestyle’ by including the Human Microbiome Project, the importance of microorganisms in our body as well as their relationship with health and diseases, and present it under the leadership of Little KITES.
Answer:
Some helpful tips for making videos:
1. Start with an engaging question like, “Did you know there’s a microbial world inside you?”

2. Use simple language: Avoid technical terms like “microbiome” and simply say “the community of microbes in our bodies.”

3. Use visuals:

• Animation: Simple animations can show how bacteria digest food and help the immune system.
• Charts and images: Simple charts or images can be used to explain the structure of the microbiome.
• Similes: Simple similes can help make the idea clearer.

4. Keep it short and to the point: Reduce the length of the video. Focus only on the main points.

• Introduction: What is the microbiome?
• Content: How does it help us, and what happens if it becomes unhealthy?
• Conclusion: How can we keep it healthy?

5. End the video with a message like “Remember that the food you eat helps the microbes inside you make the world healthier.”

Question 2.
Organise a debate to discuss on the topic ‘The Social and Ethical Aspects of Biotechnology including Genetic Engineering’ by involving experts and the general public.
Answer:
Suggestions for discussion:
a) Moral aspects:

• Designer babies: Is it morally right to create ‘superior humans’ by rewriting the genes that determine intelligence and beauty? Won’t this create new kinds of inequalities in society?
• Human evolution: How will genetic engineering affect the natural evolution of humans? What changes will the creatures created by humans make in nature?

b) Socio-economic aspects:

• Economic inequality: Genetic treatments are likely to be very expensive. Will this become a privilege only available to the rich?
• Food security: Are genetically modified crops (GMOs) a solution to food shortages or will they cause health problems in the long run?

c) Legal aspects: How can we prevent the potential for misuse of these technologies? What should be the rules regarding keeping genetic information confidential?

Question 3.
Conduct a publicity campaign in schools and nearby areas, by using posters and pamphlets prepared on the importance of biotechnology.
Answer:

Question 4.
Prepare a science article exploring the possibilities and problems that could arise if gene editing were applied to humans.
Answer:
Some tips the writing an essay:

• Explain briefly what gene editing is and how technologies like CRISPR-Cas9 can help with this. Mention its importance in the field of human health.
• Potential (benefits): Treating hereditary diseases: It is possible to provide a permanent solution to genetic diseases such as cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anaemia.
• Enhancing immunity: Genes can be modified to increase the body’s immunity to fight HIV and some types of cancer.
• Problems and challenges (disadvantages): Safety issues: Gene editing technology is prone to errors. This can cause unwanted changes and lead to new diseases or other health problems.
•  Social implications: It is possible to create a new kind of social division between genetically enhanced humans and those who are not. This may create new conflicts in society.
•  Gene editing is a critical technology. Although it has great potential, it must be used responsibly and with legal restrictions. The article concludes by noting that more discussion and study is needed on how to use this technology for the welfare of humanity.

Biology and Technology Class 10 Notes

Biology and Technology Notes Pdf

• Biotechnology is the technology that uses living organisms or their parts to provide products and services that are useful to humans.
• Genetic engineering is the technology that creates desirable traits in organisms by adding or removing genes.
• Recombinant DNA technology combines DNA segments from two or more different organisms to form recombinant DNA.
• CRISPR is a modern technique used to edit DNA with extreme precision. It uses an enzyme called Cas9 as scissors to cut DNA. It also includes an RNA that identifies the DNA segment to be cut. This is called as guide RNA (gRNA).
• There are plants, animals, and microorganisms whose genetic constitutions have been altered through genetic engineering. They are called Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs).
• The genome is the sum total of all the genetic materials in an organism.
• The Human Genome Project was a global scientific initiative that began in 1990 and was completed in 2003, with the goal of completely understanding the information in the human genome.
• Gene mapping is a technology that locates the location of genes in DNA.
• Gene therapy is a method of treating diseases by removing defective genes and replacing them with functional genes.
• DNA fingerprinting is a technique used to identify individuals by analysing the arrangement of nucleotides in DNA.
• The human microbiome is the collection of microorganisms and their genes that inhabit and interact with the human body.
• The Human Microbiome Project (HMP) is a project launched by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the United States in 2007 to expand knowledge about microorganisms.
• AI plays an important role in many biological fields such as diagnosis, drug discovery, and genetic engineering.
• Many biological techniques have been developed to help protect ecosystems and biodiversity. Technology plays a major role in effectively combating the challenges facing nature.

INTRODUCTION

Genetic Revolution
Human evolution is moving from a life in harmony with nature to the advanced era of biotechnology and artificial intelligence (AI). From the use of fire, agriculture, and social life, to major discoveries such as cell biology, genes, DNA analysis, and synthetic biology, humans are conquering new heights of knowledge. These advances are bringing about major changes in areas such as environmental protection, food security, agriculture, health, and industry. By producing artificial meat in labs, we can avoid slaughtering animals. Gene editing is beneficial for the agricultural sector. Similarly, DNA analysis in the field of forensics helps in identifying criminals. These technologies have the potential to change the future of humanity.

Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering
Biotechnology and genetic engineering are two related scientific disciplines. Biotechnology is a large branch of science that uses living organisms and their parts to develop products and technologies for the welfare of humanity. Genetic engineering is a sub-discipline of this. Genetic engineering is a technology that changes the genetic structure of an organism. It helps in cutting out genes, adding new genes, and controlling the functions of genes. Technologies like recombinant DNA technology and CRISPR-Cas9 are examples of this. These technologies have brought about great changes in sectors such as health, agriculture, and industry.

Genetically Modified Organisms – GMOs
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are plants, animals, or microorganisms that have had their genetic makeup scientifically altered. Typically, these alterations are made by removing a beneficial gene from one organism and inserting it into another.

Human Genome Project (HGP)
The Human Genome Project (HGP) is a large international research project that aims to understand the entire genetic makeup (genome) of the human body.

Begun in 1990 and completed in 2003, the project sequenced approximately 3 billion base pairs of human DNA and mapped approximately 20,000 – 25,000 genes in humans.

The project opened up new avenues for research into genetic diseases, their causes, and treatments. The information provided by the Human Genome Project is considered a maj or milestone in the study of biology and medicine.

Human Microbiome Project (HMP)
The Human Microbiome Project (HMP) is a large research project aimed at studying the community of microbes (the microbiome) inside and outside the human body. Its main goal is to understand how these microbes play a role in our health and disease. Like the Human Genome Project, this project is also providing new knowledge about our bodies.

Biology and Artificial Intelligence (AI)
In today’s scientific world, biology and artificial intelligence (AI) are rapidly merging. AI is helping to analyse biological big data, make new discoveries, and bring revolutionary changes in human health and agriculture. Genome studies, protein structure analysis, drug discovery, and disease diagnosis can all be made more efficient with AI.

Technological possibilities in environmental conservation
Modern technologies open up great possibilities for environmental protection. Today, technology is an important tool for scientifically tackling problems such as climate change, pollution, and biodiversity loss. Technologies such as remote sensing, drones, and artificial intelligence (AI) help monitor the environment and collect information. Similarly, biotechnology such as bioremediation and renewable energy sources provide new ways to control pollution and protect biodiversity. In short, technology plays a major role in effectively combating the challenges facing nature.

GENETIC REVOLUTION
Genetic technology is having a major impact on various areas of human life today. Instead of relying on animals for meat production, it is possible to produce artificial meat in labs using stem cells. This is already available in countries such as the USA, Israel, and Singapore. In addition, the development of immune-resistant plants through gene editing, for example, tomato plants that are resistant to fungal diseases, holds great promise for the agricultural sector. This technology is also crucial in the field of forensics; although the body could not be found in a murder case in 2020, the DNA analysis of a hair sample obtained from the suspect’s car was able to identify and convict the murderer. Such examples illustrate the growth of genetic technology and its practical possibilities.

From ancient humans who lived in harmony with nature, humanity has reached the modern era of biotechnology, genetics, and artificial intelligence (AI). From the use of fire, the beginning of agriculture, social life, and the domestication of animals, humans are conquering new heights of knowledge through great discoveries such as cell biology, genes, DNA analysis, and synthetic biology. From primitive man to modern man, and from there to the heights of biotechnology, other technologies, and artificial intelligence (AI), man is taking a step forward. Through this, environmental protection, food security, agriculture, health, and industry are all undergoing major changes.

BIOTECHNOLOGY AND GENETIC ENGINEERING
Biotechnology

• Biotechnology is the technology of using living things or their parts to provide products and services that are useful to humans.
• The discovery of the structure of DNA has accelerated the growth of biotechnology.

Genetic engineering

• Genetic engineering is the technology for creating desired traits in organisms by combining or deleting genes.
• For this, various technologies are used in genetic engineering.

RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY
Recombinant DNA technology combines DNA segments from two or more different organisms to form recombinant DNA.
Key components of recombinant DNA technology and their functions:
a) Restriction Endonuclease Enzyme: The genetic scissors that cuts a specific gene
b) Ligase enzyme: Genetic glue that joins two DNA segments.
c) Vector: This carries the genes and a host cell into which the recombinant DNA is inserted, (circular DNA), and some viruses are used as gene carriers or vectors)
d) Host cell: The cell that receives the recombinant DNA.

CRISPR TECHNOLOGY

• CRISPR is a modern technique used to edit DNA with extreme precision.
• Emmanuel Charpentier and Jennifer A. Doudna discovered this technology.
• The CRISPR technology was designed from a natural defence mechanism that bacteria use, to defend viruses.
• It uses an enzyme called Cas9 as scissors to cut DNA.
• It also includes an RNA that identifies the DNA segment to be cut. This is called as guide RNA (gRNA).

GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS (GMOs)
There are plants, animals, and microorganisms whose genetic constitutions have been altered through genetic engineering. They are called Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs).

HUMAN GENOME PROJECT (HGP)

• Genes control our characteristics and activities.
• The genome is the sum total of all the genetic materials in an organism.
• The human genome contains approximately 300 crore DNA base pairs.
• The Human Genome Project was a global scientific initiative that began in 1990 and was completed in 2003, with the goal of completely understanding the information in the human genome.
• Gene mapping technology, which identifies the location of genes in DNA, has helped in this.
• The Human Genome Proj ect is a maj or milestone in biology.
• It is very helpful in understanding how genetic diseases arise and finding new treatments.

The following facts were discovered through this project:
a) The exact sequence of 300 crore base pairs in the human genome.
b) Humans have 20,000 to 25,000 genes.
c) Functional genes make up approximately 1 – 2% of human genome. The remaining bulk part is known as ‘junk DNA’. (Studies are going on about its exact functions.)

GENE THERAPY

Gene therapy is the method of treating diseases by removing the defective genes and replacing them with functional genes.

E.g., Sickle cell anaemia. This is a hereditary disease. Previously, there was no effective treatment for this disease. However, the World Health Organisation has approved gene therapy treatment to completely reverse sickle cell anaemia. This treatment method can be described as gene therapy or stem cell therapy, as it involves genetic modification of the stem cells of the patient and their injection back into the body.

How does gene therapy work?

Somatic gene therapy delivers healthy genes to body cells. Examples: muscles, liver, blood cells. The effect of this therapy will be only in the person being treated; that is, these changes in genes will not be passed on to the next generation. However, in germline gene therapy, the genes are transferred into the reproductive cells. The genetic changes that occur in this way will be transmitted to the next generations. This raises so many ethical and social questions.

DNA FINGERPRINTING

• The technology that is used to analyse the sequence of nucleotides in DNA and to identify individuals accordingly is called DNA fingerprinting.
• 99.9% of DNA is the same in all humans. Variations are seen in the remaining 0.1 % of the DNA of individuals.
• Just as fingerprints that vary from person to person, the sequence of nucleotides in each person also vary. This peculiarity helps to identify individuals.
• These differences are mainly seen in the parts of DNA that do not help to make proteins. In these parts, some DNA sequences are repeated.
• The number of repeats and their order differ in each individual.
• More resemblances can be seen in the DNA patterns of parents, their offspring and siblings.

British geneticist Sir Alex Jeffrey discovered DNA fingerprinting on 10 September, 1984, at the University of Leicester. While examining a DNA X- ray film, he realised that differences in the DNA patterns of individuals could be used to identify them. He also discovered that each individual has a unique DNA pattern, as unique as the fingerprint.

Uses of DNA Fingerprinting:

• To identify culprits
• To identify genetic disorders and learn about hereditary diseases
• To determine the biological relationship between parents and offspring
• To understand lineage by identifying fossils
• To identify victims of accidents or disasters
• To track endangered species

Organoids and 3D printing

Organoids are tiny, three-dimensional tissue models that are grown in the lab. They help to study diseases, test new drugs, and develop regenerative therapies. Currently, the shortage of donors, infection, and the tendency of the body to reject the new organ are major challenges in organ transplantation surgery. 3D printing of organs is a technology that can help to overcome these challenges. By using M.R.I or C.T scan the image of organs are collected. These images and bioinks (consisting of living cells, other organic materials and growth factors) are sent to the 3D bioprinter. Using the bioinks, the 3D bioprinter creates organ models. This technology could effect major changes in organ transplantation surgery in future.

HUMAN MICROBIOME PROJECT (HMP)

• The human microbiome is the collection of microorganisms and their genes that inhabit and interact within the human body.
• It is a community of microorganisms that includes bacteria, archaea, fungi and viruses.
• The number of microorganisms in our body is ten times more than the cells.
• They provide us with many services, including immunity, digestion, and the production and absorption of vitamins.
• To develop knowledge about microorganisms, the Human Microbiome Project (HMP) was launched by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the United States in 2007.
• HMP proved that the human body is not only composed of cells but also crores of microorganisms, and co-existence is essential for our well-being.
• It also revealed that the cause of disease is not only the pathogen but the change in the equilibrium of microorganisms in the body.
• This knowledge has opened new avenues for diagnostic and treatment methods.
• This project opened a great opportunity to design personalised medicine and to arrange treatment according to each individual’s microbiome.

The science that converts even feces to medicine

Our bodies are home to trillions of microbes working for us. The main ones are bacteria. Antibiotics are ineffective against serious intestinal infections caused by the drug-resistant bacterium Clostridium difficile. That’s where a new treatment using human feces as medicine comes in. For this treatment, beneficial bacteria that help with digestion are collected from the feces of a healthy person and put into capsules. When these “poop pills” are given to the patient, the number of good bacteria increases, and they can fight Clostridium difficile infections. The World Health Organisation (WHO) has approved the poop treatment. As strange as it may sound, this is an example of how science will take any path to solve a problem through its method.

TECHNOLOGICAL POSSIBILITIES IN ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION
Numerous biological techniques have been developed to help conserve the ecosystems and biodiversity. The following are some examples:
a) Wildlife Tracking Sensors: These help wildlife conservationists and researchers to plan conservation strategies by monitoring the movement, behaviour, and location of wild animals.

b) Global Biodiversity Data Sensors: A technology that collects information about biodiversity using satellite remote sensing, acoustic analysis and camera traps

c) Cryopreservation: This is the process of preserving living cells, tissues and organs at very low temperatures (- 196°C). It is used for long-term preservation in fields such as medicine, agriculture and research.

d) Bioremediation: Uses microorganisms and plants to remove pollutants from contaminated environments such as soil, water and air. This converts the pollutants into harmless compounds.